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''  •'■  5vfAj:  '(i±J^l 0£O^:^>.  M^  CLELK^^  U.  S.  A 


,::Jt^^-:-'-:Saft 


THE 


ARMIES  OF  EUROPE 


COMPRISISG 


DESCRIPTIONS  IN  DETAIL 


MILITARY  SYSTEMS  OF  ENGLAND,  FRANCE,  RUSSIA, 
PRUSSIA,  AUSTRIA,  AND  SARDINIA, 

Adapting  tlicir  Advantages  U  all  Arms  of  tie  Uuited  States  Senicc: 


ASD  E5IB0DYIXG  THE 


REPORT  OF  OBSERVATIONS  IN  EUROPE  DURING  THE  CRIMEAN  WAR, 

AS  MILITARY  COMMISSIONER  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES 

GOVERNMENT,  IN  1855^6. 


BY 


GEO.    B.    M^CLELLAN, 

*    MAJOR-GEXEEAL  U.S.  ARMY. 


ORIGIN  A  T.T.Y  PUBLISHED  TJNDEE,  THE    DIKECTION  OP  THE  WAB   DEPARTMEKT 
BY    OKDER    OP    CONGRESS. 

.  0      »_      >       >      '  » 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    &   CO. 

1861. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1861,  by  , 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO. 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania. 


PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE. 


The  following  pages  comprise  tlie  record  of  the  observations 
of  General  McClellan,  as  military  comriiissioner  from  the  United 
States  Government  to  Europe  in  1855-56.  He  was  the  youngest 
officer  of  the  commission,  and  was  selected  on  'account  of  the 
brilliant  military  qualities  he  had  already  displayed. 

This  volume  opens  with  a  masterly  and  interesting  summary 
of  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  in  which  the  boldness  of  the  comments 
is  fully  warranted  by  their  intelligence  and  justice :  following 
this  is  a  varied  and  detailed  description  of  all  the  components 
of  the  prominent  European  armies,  gathered  from  the  highest 
authorities,  at  the  military  schools,  forts,  museums,  camps,  and 
garrisons  of  the  countries  which  he  visited.  As  he  was  at  that 
time  a  captain  of  cavalry,  this  arm  engages  his  particular  atten- 
tion :  he  has  presented  the  fullest  account  yet  offered  of  the 
cavalry  service  in  Europe ;  and,  by  adaptation,  a  most  excellent 
set  of  Regulations  for  the  field  service  of  the  United  States 
cavalry  in  time  of  war.  -  These  regulations  are  invaluable,  and 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  cavalry  officer  in  the  service. 

A  recapitulation  of  the  contents  would  be  prolix  and  unneces- 
sary :  a  word  may  be  said  as  to  the  present  issue  of  the  work. 
"Written  in  time  of  profound  peace, — the  author  being  of  subor- 
dinate rank,  and  but  little  known,  beyond  that  army  appreciation 
which  he  has  always  enjoyed, — the  report  appeared  originally  as 
a  Government  document,  in  an  inconvenient  (quarto)  form,  and  it 
commanded  a  large  price.  Although  adding  to  his  reputation 
among  military  men,  it  never  found  its  way  to  the  public  at  large. 

Those  into  whose  hands  it  fell,  and  who  were  sufficiently  edu- 
cated in  military  affairs  to  appreciate  it,  at  once  recognized  its 
excellence,  the  immense  labor  bestowed  upon  it,  and  the  practical 
value  of  its  teachings;  but  the  facts  just  mentioned  prevented  the 
expectation  that  these  would  receive  the  reward  of  general  praise. 

5 

250163 


.  •  •  • 


B"    "  PUBLISHERS'    PREFACE. 

Actuated  by  energy,  enterprise,  and  self-respect,  McClellan  was 
true  to'himself  and  his  commission,  and  was  willing  to  submit  his 
labors  to  time. 

That  time  has  now  arrived.  The  country  is  convulsed  by  war; 
military  instruction  is  everywhere  looked  for  and  eagerly  received. 
The  American  public  is  educated  up  to  the  intelligent  use  of  such 
books  as  this;  and  the  book  itself,  in  excellence,  variety,  and 
value,  stands  without  a  rival.  The  citizen  soldier,  whose  patriot- 
ism alone  takes  him  to  the  field,  will  here  find  the  best  precepts 
in  his  newly-adopted  profession,  now  emanating  from  the  lips  of 
his  own  distinguished  commander.  To  the  army  he  always  speaks 
with  authority. 

Originally  an  engineer  officer,  and  serving  with  distinction  in 
an  engineer  company  during  the  Mexican  War^  McClellan  has 
given  us  in  this  work  the  best  directions  as  to  engineer  troops, 
reconnoissances  and  field  fortifications,  a^d  entrenchments. 

As  -a  captain  of  cavalry,  he  has  made  that  arm  his  special  sub- 
ject; and  as  a  complete  soldier,  who  knows  that  the  strength  of 
an  army  is  its  infantry,  he  has  not  neglected  that  corps,  in  ob- 
servation or  record.  The  work  is  indeed  a  full  and  clear  descrip- 
tion of  the  armies  of  Europe,  as  its  new  title  expresses. 

But  chiefly  is  it  appropriate  and  timely  because  it  lays  down 
the  principles  which  are  to  guide  him  in  hia  important  command. 
It  contains  his  own  theoretic  views  and  rules,  now  to  be  carried 
out  in  practice.  It  is — as  it  were — his  own  military  history 
written,  unconsciously,  in  advance. 

His  constituency  is  now  immense ;  and  they  will  watch  with 
intense  interest,  while  they  read  his  war-precepts  here,  to  see 
how  he  will  carry  them  out  in  the  great  war  in  which  he  has  such 
an  important  command. 

It  is  due  to  the  distinguished  author  to  say  that  the  republi- 
cation is  made  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  publishers. 

Philadelphia,  Oct.  3,  1861. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The  Crimean  War 9 

European  Exgiseek  Troops 36 

French,  Austrian,  Prussian,  and  Sardinian  Infantry 57 

The  Russian  Army  : 

Chapter  I.      Organization,  Uniform,  Recruiting,  Rations,  &c 85 

Chapter  II.    The  Instruction  and  Tactics  of  Cavalry 116 

Chapter  III.  Equipment,  Arms,  Stables,  Horses,  &c.,  of  Cavalry 200 

Chapter  IV.  On  the  Russian  Infantry 211 

Prussian  Cavalry , 295 

Austrian  Cavalry 314 

French  Cavalry 340 

English  Cavalry 377 

Sardinian  Cavalry *. /: 384 

United  States  Cavalry 386 

APPENDIX. 
Regulations  and  Instructions  for  the  Field  Service  of  Cavalry,  in 

Time  of  War^  for  the  United  States  Army 395 

Index 491 


M^CLELLAN'S 

ARMIES  OF  EUROPE 


THE  CRIMEAN  WAR. 

Believing  that  the  officers  of.  the  army  have  a  right  to  know  the 
opinions  formed  by  one  of  their  number  who  enjoyed  the  opportunity  of 
visiting,  in  an  official  character,  the  scene  of  the  recent  contest  in  the 
East„  I  somewhat  reluctantly  undertake  the  task  of  attempting  to  give  a 
succinct  account  of  those  general  points  of  the  operations  in  the  Crimea 
which  are  most  important  and  interesting  in  their  professional  bearing. 

For  many  and  obvious  reasons,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  enter  into 
details.  The  task  woul(i  be  an  endless  one  were  the  means  at  hand ;  and 
nothing  but  an  accurate  survey,  or  very  minute  and  frequent  examina- 
tions, of  every  part  of  the  vast  field  on  which  these  operations  occurred, 
combined  with  the  advantage  of  having  been  an  eye-witness  of  the  events 
themselves  and  the  circumstances  under  which  they  took  place,  could 
justify  any  one  in  undertaking  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  campaign 
of  the  Crimea.  It  is  known  that  circumstances  rendered  it  impossible 
for  the  commission  to  reach  the  seat  of  war  until  a  short  time  after  the 
fall  of  the  Malakofi".  I  have  reason  to  expect  that  the  other  members  of 
the  commission  (Col.  Delafield,  of  the  Engineers,  and  Maj.  Mordecai, 
of  the  Ordnance)  will  enter  into  considerable  detail  with  regard  to  the 
condition  and  nature  of  the  Russian  defences  as  they  existed  at  the  close 
of  .the  siege,  the  amount,  calibre,  and  effect  of  the  artillery  employed,  &c. 

Although  fully  aware  that  it  is  much  easier  to  criticize  operations  after 
the  result  is  known  than  to  direct  them  at  the  time,  I  shall  not  hesitate  to 
invite  attention  to  what  appear  to  be  evident  mistakes  on  either  side ;  this, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  finding  fault,  or  instituting  comparisons,  but  with 
the  hope  that  it  may  serve  to  draw  the  attention  of  our  officers  to  the 
same  points,  and,  perhaps,  assist  in  preventing  similar  errors  on  our  part 
hereafter 

From  the  general  interest  felt  in  the  Crimean  war,  it  is  more  than 

9 


10  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

probable  that  every  officer  of  our  army  followed  step  by  step  the  movements 
of  the  allies  from  Gallipoli  to  Varna,  from  Varna  to  Old  Fort,  and  thence 
to  the  scene  of  the  gigantic  strife  in  the  Heracleidan  Chersonese. 

It  may  seem  absurd  to  compare  small  affairs  with  great,  but  it  cannot 
fail  to  be  a  source  of  satisfaction  to  reflect  upon  the  fact  that  in  the  opera- 
tions against  Vera  Cruz,  the  first  thing  of  that  nature  we  had  ever  under- 
taken, we  completed  a  difficult  line  of  investment  on  the  second  day  after 
landings  while,  the  experienced  troops  of  tha  allies  required  nearly  seven " 
days  to  land  and  march  about  15  miles  to  the  Alma;  bearing  in  mind  that 
they  landed  without  knapsacks,  (the  English,  at  least,)  with  nothing  but 
a  scanty  field  material,  and  that  they  were  in  constant  communication  with 
their  fleet.  It  was  twenty-seven  days  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma  that 
they  opened  fire  upon  Sebastopol,  although  the  distance  from  the  Alma  to 
Balaklava  did  not  exceed  30  miles,  and  their  siege  train  was  with  the 
fleet  and  landed  in  the  secure  harbors  of  Kamiesch  and  Balaklava.  In 
spite  of  the  delays  arising  from  mistakes  in  forwarding  our  siege  t^ain, 
which  was  landed  on  an  open  beach,  at  a  time  when  violent  northers 
frequently  suspended  work  and  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  fleet, 
we  opened  fire  upon  Vera  Cruz  on  the  thirteenth  day  after  landing. 

Before  entering  upon  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to 
the  battles  which  varied  the  monotony  of  that  long  period,  during  which 
both  parties  evinced  so  much  gallantry  and  endurance  in  the  usual  opera- 
tions of  attack  and  defence,  relieved  often  by  the  gallant  sorties  of  the 
garrison  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  by  the  desperate  assaults  of 
the  besiegers.  In  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  important  chiefly  because  it 
established  the  morale  of  the  attacking  party,  the  allies  seem  to  have  been, 
judging  from  the  statements  of  both  sides,  of  about  double  the  force  of 
the  Russians.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  position  was  really  a  remark- 
ably strong  one,  nor  that  it  was  at  all  improved  by  artificial  means.  The 
only  field  works  were  a  few  trifling  barbette  parapets  in  front  of  some  of 
the  batteries ;  while  the  slopes  leading  to  the  position  seem  often  to  have 
been,  particularly  on  the  Russian  left,  too  steep  to  permit  the  effective 
operation  of  the  weapons  of  the  defenders.  Of  the  relative  gallantry  of 
the  troops  composing  the  allied  army  this  is  no  proper  place  to  speak.  It 
need  only  be  said  that  the  column  conducted  by  General  Bosquet  decided 
the  retreat  of  the  Russians,  since  it  turned  their  left  flank.  •  Of  the  pro- 
priety of  this  movement  doubts  may  be  entertained,  considering  always 
the  subsequent  movements  of  the  allies.  It  would  seem  natural  that  two 
plans  ought  to  have  been  considered  by  the  allied  generals :  the  first,  to 
cut  off  the  Russian  army  from  Sebastopol,  and,  following  the  battle  by  a 
rapid  advance  upon  the  city,  to  enter  it,  at  all  hazards,  over  the  bodies  of 
its  weak  garrison,  effect  their  purposes,  and  either  retire  to  the  fleet  or 
hold  the  town ;  the  second,  to  cut  off  the  Russian  army  of  operations  from 


THE    CRIMEAN    WAR..  11 

all  external  succor  on  the  part  of  troops  coming  from  the  direction  of 
Simpheropol,  to  drive  them  into  the  city,  and  enter  at  their  heels. 
■  To  accomplish  the  first  plan,  the  attack  of  Bosquet  was  proper,  but 
should  have  been  followed  up  by  such  an  unremitting  pursuit  as  that 
which  succeeded  the  battle  of  Jena.  To  gain  the  second  object,  it  would 
have  been  proper  to  attack  the  Russian  right,  and  endeavor  not  only  to 
cut  them  off  from  Simpheropol,  but  to  throw  them  into  the  sea  by  pushing 
forward  the  allied  left  so  far  and  so  rapidly  as  to  cut  them  off  from  Sebas- 
topol,  and  thus  annihilate  theiil.  Neither  of  these  plans  was  fully  carried 
out.  The  Russians  retired  in  perfect  order,  abandoning  only  one  or  two  dis- 
mounted guns,  thus  justifying  the  supposition  that  their  general  appreciated 
much  more  fully  than  did  the  allies  the  delicate  nature  of  his  position. 

It  must  be  stated  that,  during  the  battle,  the  garrison  of  Sebastopol 
consisted  merely  of  four  battalions  and  the  sailors  of  the  fleet.  The  con- 
dition of  its  defences  at  that  time  will  hereafter  be  alluded  to. 

In  considering  the  operations  of  the  Russians  at  this  period,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  nearest  harbot  to  the  north  of  Sebastopol  that  could 
at  all  answer  as  a" depot  for  the  operations  of  a  siege  was  the  poor  one  of 
Eupatoria,  forty-eight  miles  distant ;  and  that  to  the  south  of  the  city 
the  only  harbors  were  Balaklava  and  the  series  between  Cape  Chersonese 
and  the  city.  It  was  clearly  the  interest  of  the  Russians  to  oblige  the 
allies  to  attack  on  the  north  rather  than  on  the  south  side ;  for  the  reasons 
that  the  former  was  already  in  an  efficient  state  of  defence,  requiring  open 
trenches  to  reduce  it,  while  the  latter  was  open  ;  and  more  especially  that 
their  long  line  of  communication  with  Eupatoria  and  the  rear  of  their 
position  would  have  remained  exposed  to  the  constant  attacks  of  the  re- 
inforcements which  might  soon  be  expected  by  the  Russians,  while  the 
city  could  still  be  supplied  by  the  more  circuitous  route  of  the  valley  of 
Baidar,  the  allied  force  being  too  small  to  complete  the  investment.  It 
was  impossible  for  the  Russians  to  oppose  the  landing ;  because  an  army 
on  land  could  never  keep  pace  with  the  movements  of  a  fleet.  The  only 
reasonable  plan  was  to  remain  in  position  at  Sebastopol,  and  act  according 
to  circumstances  as  soon  as  the  allies  showed  their  hand.  But,  the  landing 
being  once  effected,  the  Russian  general  should  have  annoyed  and  harassed 
them,  by  day  and  night,  by  unremitting  attacks  by  his  Cossacks  and  other 
light  troops. 

Instead  of  offering  battle  at  the  Alma,  two  other  plans  were  open  for 
the  consideration  of  the  Russian.  In  any  event,  to  destroy  the  harbors  of 
Balaklava,  Kamiesch,  kc,  and  then,  first,  to  leave  in  Sebastopol  the  gar- 
rison necessary  to  secure  it  against  assault  by  a  detachment  of  the  allied 
army,  and  with  the  rest  of  his  available  troops  to  operate  on  the  left  flank 
of  the  allies,  in  which  case  his  superior  knowledge  of  the  ground  ought 
to  have  enabled  him  at  least  to  delay  them  many  days  in  a  precarious 


12  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

position ;  second,  to  remain  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  occupy  the  plateau 
to  the  south  of  it,  arid  allow  the  allies  to  plunge  as  dee|)ly  as  they  chose 
into  the  cul  de  sac  thus  opened  to  them. 

A  couple  of  vessels  sunk  in  the  narrow  mouth  of  the  harbor  of  Balak- 
lava,  or  the  employment  of  a  few  tons  of  powder  in  blasting  the  elf  fife 
which  enclosed  its  entrance,  would  have  effectually  prevented  all  access 
to  it.  A  few  vessels  sunk  in  the  common  entrance  of  the  harbors  of 
Kamiesch  and  Kazatch,  and  the  same  thing  at  Strelitzka  bay,  would  have 
rendered  them  also  inaccessible.  This  should  have  been  regarded  as  a 
necessary  part  of  any  system  of  defence  for  Sebastopol,  and,  if  carried 
out,  would  have  placed  the  allies  in  a  most  unenviable  position.  The 
result  of  their  expedition  would  have  been  disastrous  in  the  extreme;  and 
they  might  well  have  esteemed  themselves  fortunate  if  permitted  to  re- 
trace their  weary  journey  to  the  Old  Fort,  there  to  re-embark  and  con- 
sider more  promising  plans  of  campaign.  I  am  not  acquainted  with  the 
early  career  of  the  Russian  commander,  but  cannot  resist  the  conviction 
that  the  history  of  his  operations  will  but  present  another  example  of  the 
impropriety  of  intrusting  military  operations  to  any  other  than  a  profes- 
sional soldier,  or  at  least  of  the  danger  of  atteulpting  to  combine  in  one 
person  any  such  dissimilar  professions  as  those  of  the  sailor  and  the  soldier. 
The  moral  courage  and  energy  of  the  admiral  in  the  early  part  of  the 
siege,  and  his  sagacity  in  detecting  the  merits  of  Todtleben,  are  above 
praise,  but  cannot  efface  the  impression  that  he  £iiled  to  take  a  suffi- 
ciently enlarged  and  military  view  of  the  events  .he  so  largely  controlled. 

To  resume  the  movements  of  the  allies.  The  battle  of  the  Alma  was 
fought  on  the  20th  of  September ;  the  two  following  days  were  spent  on 
the  field  of  battle ;  the  23d  and  24th  were  occupied  in  marching  a  little 
more  than  ten  miles  to  the  Balbek;  the  25th  and  half  of  the  26th  were 
passed  here,  when,  at  noon  of  the  latter  day,  the  flank  march  to  the 
south  side  was  commenced  by  the  curious  arrangement  of  sending  the 
English  artillery  in  advance,  without  escort,  through  a  woods.  This 
very  original  order  of  march  was  wellnigh  attended  with  disastrous  con- 
sequences ;  for,  as  the  head  of  the  column  approached  -the  main  road  at 
Mackenzie's  farm,  a  strong  Russian  column  passed  by.  Fortunately  for 
the  English  batteries,  the  Russians  must  have  neglected  observing  the 
roads,  and,  being  ignorant  of  the  true  state  of  affairs,  steadily  pursued 
their  march  towards  Baktschi  Serai,  thus  losing  an  opportunity  of 
striking  a  brilliant  blow  without  risk  to  themselves. 

Finally,  after  darkness  set  in,  the  head  of  the  English  column  reached 
the  banks  of  the  Tchernaya  at  the  Traktir  -bridge,  the  rear  closing  up 
very  late  at  night,  broken  down  by  disease,  burning  with  thirst  and 
exhausted  by  fatigue.  Next  day  the  march  was  resumed ;  losing  many 
men  by  the  cholera,  and  much  disorganized  by  the  fatigues  of  the  pre- 


THE   CRIMEAN   WAR.  13 

ceding  day,  they  at  length  reached  the  welcome  haven  of  Balaklava 
just  as  an  English  steamer  glided  in.  Thus,  on  the  27th,  the  communi- 
cation -with  the  fleet  was  regained,  and  the  first  episode  of  the  campaign 
terminated.  The  French  followed  the  movement,  the  armies  ascended  the 
plateau,  Kamiesch  was  occupied ;  and  now,  instead  of  taking  advantage  of 
the  exposed  condition  of  the  south  side,  the  allies  commenced  the  labor 
of  landing  and  moving  up  their  siege  material,  opening  the  trenches,  &c. 

To  appreciate  the  position  of  the  English  army  on  the  night  it  reached 
the  Tfchernaya,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  had  in  its  rear  the  pre- 
cipitous heights  of  Mackenzie,  several  hundred  feet  in  elevation,  with 
but  a  single  road  leading  to  the  summit,  and  that  they  were  thus  cut  off 
from  the  immediate  assistance  of  the  French.  If  the  English  had  been 
attacked  this  night,  the  result  must  have  been  disastrous  to  them  in  the 
extreme.  Had  the  harbor  of  Balaklava  been  destroyed,  and  the  attack 
been  made  during  the  next  day's  march,  it  is  probable  that  their  annihilar 
tion  would  have  been  the  result. 

In  considering  this  marcH,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  determine  which 
party  committed  the  greatest  faults, — the  allies  in  so  exposing  themselves, 
or  the  Russian  in  failing  to  avail  himself  of  the  opportunities  offered. 

Thus  far  the  allied  generals  displayed  none  of  the  qualities  of  great 
commanders :  their  measures  were  half-way  measures,  slow  and  blunder- 
ing ;  they  failed  to  keep  constantly  in  view  the  object  of  the  expedition, 
and  to  press  rapidly  and  unceasingly  towards  it. 

From  the  moment  the  allies  occupied  Balaklava  and  Kamiesch,  the 
conduct  of  the  Russian  general  deserves  high  commendation,  and  was  in 
striking  contrast  with  that  of  his  antagonists. 

The  affair  of  Balaklava  has  been  so  often  discussed,  yet  so  imperfectly 
explained  by  the  innumerable  military  and  civil  inquiries  to  which  it,  and 
all  connected  with  it,  have  been  subjected,  that  it  would  seem  idle  for 
one  who  visited  the  scene  nearly  a  year  after  it  occurred  to  pretend  to 
comment  upon  it ;  but  it  may  be  permitted  to  say,  with  regard  to  the 
ground  over  which  the  English  light  cavalry  charged,  that,  if  the  eye 
were  not  raised  from  the  soil  under  foot,  no  more  favorable  place  could 
be  selected  for  a  charge  of  cavalry — it  was  on  the  smooth  turf  of  the  flat  and 
level  bottom  of  a  wide  valley;  but,  upon  turning  the  glance  to  the  ground 
to  the  north  and  east,  imagining  the  Russians  in  the  positions  which  they 
occupied  on  the  25th  October,  1854,  it  is  difficult  to  divine  how  any 
officer  could  direct  such  a  charge  to  be  made :  destruction  was  inevitable, 
and  nothing  could  be  gained.  No  doubt  there  often  are  cases  in  which 
one  arm  of  service  may  consistently  be  required  to  sacrifice  itself  for  the 
benefit  of  the  others,  but  this  was  not  such  a  case.  The  most  appropriate 
criticism  upon  this  exhibition  of  insane  and  useless  'valor  seems  to  be 
that,  no  doubt,  made  by  a  well-known  French  general :  "  C'est  bien  mag- 


14  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

nifique,  mais  ce  n'est  pas  la  guerre !"  The  Russians  have  been  criticized 
for  effecting  ^^  too  much  and  too  little"  in  the  affair  of  Balaklava :  too 
much  in  indicating  to  the  allies  the  weakness  of  their  right ;  too  little  in 
not  availing  themselves  of  this  weakness  to  carry  Balaklava.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  their  object  was  chiefly  to  slacken  the  operations  of  the  siege 
by  making  a  diversion;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  they  acted  with  all 
possible  energy  on  this  occasion. 

As  things  went  at  Inkermann,  the  resul^,  as  far  as  the  English  were 
concerned,  appears  td  have  been  due  to  that  steady  and  magnificent  courage 
of  their  race,  which  has  so  often  palliated  or  overbalanced  the  follies  and 
unskilfulness  of  their  commanders,  whether  in  victory  or  defeat.  Their 
conduct  on  that  day  was  worthy  of  the  nation  which  gained  credit  alike 
at  Malplaquet  and  Landen,  Blenheim  and  Fontenoy,  Waterloo  and 
Corunna. 

The  position  of  Inkermann  is  the  key-point  of  the  northeastern  angle 
of  the  plateau  of  the 'Chersonese;  it  commands  the  road  ascending  the 
plateau  by  Cathcart's  ravine,  the  only  approach  from  the  north  side,  and 
the  road  which  follows  the  Careening  Bay  ravine,  the  only  approach  from 
the  city  in  that  vicinity  j  it  is  the  most  elevated  ground  in-  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  is  susceptible  of  a  strong  defence  from  wl\atever  direction  it 
may  be  attacked.  Were  it  occupied  by  the  Russians,  the  siege  of  the 
Karabelnaia  became  impossible,  and  the  position  of  the  allies  dangerous 
in  the  extreme;  if  strongly  occupied  by  the  allies,  their  right  became 
perfectly  secure. 

Could  the  Russians  have  anticipated  a  siege  of  Sebastopol,  it  would 
have  been  an  unpardonable  error  not  to  have  occupied  the  Inkermann  by 
a  small  permanent  work.  How  little  they  were  prepared  for  an  attack 
by  land  will  probably  be  shown  in  the  sequel ;  but,  as  things  were,  it 
appears  to  be  a  grave  error  not  to  have  intrenched  the  position  from  the 
beginning.  It  was  still  more  inexcusable  on  the  part  of  the  allies  to 
have  omitted  the  occupation  of  the  position  in  force;  nor,  with  proper 
field  works,  would  a  very  large  force  have  been  necessary. 

The  Russian  plan  for  the  battle  of  November  5  was  most  excellent  in 
conception ;  and,  as  far  as  mere  orders  could  go,  nothing  seemed  wan  ting- 
to  insure  success,  and  drive  the  English  partly  over  the  steep  borders  of 
the  plateau  into  the  open  arms  of  Gortschakoff,  partly  into  the  sea,  and 
the  rest  to  Kamiesch.  It  must  be  kept  in  view  that  the  principal  object 
of  the  Russians  in  giving  battle  at  the  Inkermann  was  to  prevent  an 
assault  upon  the  town,  then  regarded  as  too  weak  to  resist  it:  in  this 
respect,  although  at  a  heavy  cost,  they  gained  their  point,  for  they  effect- 
ually rendered  an  assault  impossible  for  many  months  thereafter.  In 
considering  the  plan  of  attack,  the  Russian  general  rejected  the  idea  of 
a  movement  on  the  allied  centre,  (by  the  ravine  of  the  inner  harbor,) 


THE    CRIMEAN    WAR.  15 

because  it  was  too  effectually  defended  by  the  siege  batteries  of  the  allies; 
the  attack  upon  their  rear  was  rejected  because  the  plateau  was  very  diffi- 
cult of  access,  strongly  guarded,  and  the  affair  of  Balakluva  had  induced 
the  allies  to  throw  up  works  in  that  direction.  It  was  therefore  determined 
to  attack  the  English  right  and  centre,  making  false  attacks  on  the  French 
left  and  towards  Balaklava. 

The  spirit  of  the  orders  issued  was  as  follows :  Greneral  Soimonoff,  with 
16,200  infantry  and  38  guns,  to  march  up  the  Careening  Bay  ravine, 
ascend  its  western  slope  near  the  Victoria  redoubt,  and  attack  the  English 
centre.  General  Pauloff,  with  13,500  infantry  and  28  guns,  to  march 
fi-om  the  north  side,  descend  into  and  cross  the  Tchernaya  valley  at  the 
head  of  the  bay,  ascend  by  Cathcart's  ravine,  and  attack  the  English 
risht ;  the  attack  of  these  two  commands  to  be  simultaneous.  General 
Gortschakoff,  with  about  15,000  infantry,  4,000  cavalry,  and  40  guns,  to 
make  a  false  attack  upon  Balaklava  and  the  roads  leadipg  thence  to  th* 
plateau.  General  Timofajeff,  with  some  2,500  men  and  4  guns,  to  make 
a  false  attack  upon  the  French  left,  carrying  their  batteries,  if  any  con- 
fusion were  observed  among  them.  The  batteries  in  the  town  to  keep 
up  a  warm  fire. 

A  close  examination  of  the  ground  would  indicate  the  propriety  of  this 
plan  of  attack;  the  difficulty  arose  in  the  execution.  It  would  appear 
that  in  the  orders  the  expression  ^'  left  of  the  Careening  Bay  ravine"  was 
used  for  ^^ western;'^  Soimonoff  improperly  interpreted  this  as  meaning 
his  own  left,  and  thus  brought  his  own  and  Pauloff^s  column  into  a  state 
of  confusion  which  paralyzed  the  efforts  of  both,  so  that  but  a  portion 
of  either  command  was  at  any  one  time  engaged.  • 

As  it  wfis,  the  Russians  were  undouhtedly  drivijig  the  exhausted  Kng- 
lish  before  them  when  Bosquet  came  up.  Had  the  false  attack  towards 
Balaklava  been  properly  conducted.  Bosquet  would  have  been  unable  to 
assist  the  English ;  but,  soon  perceiving  that  the  operations  of  Gortscha- 
koff were  confined  to  a  simple  cannonade  at  long  range^he  readily  divined 
the  true  state  of  affairs,  and  by  his  prompt  action  saved  the  army. 

Timofajeff'succeeded  in  spiking  fifteen  guns,  and  paralyzed  the  French 
left.      .        •• 

It  would  thus  seem  that  the  result  of  the  action  was  due  partly  to  the 
courage  of  the  English,  partly  to  the  mistake  of  Soimonoff,  (who  expiated 
his  error  with  his  life,)  partly  to  the  prompt  and  correct  judgment  of 
Bosquet,  and  mainly  to  the  fact  that  Gortschakoff  did  not  conduct  his 
false  attack  with  sufficient  energy  and  decision. 

The  desperate  courage  of  the  Russidns  in  this  affair  was  fully  acknow- 
ledged by  all  who  participated  in  it. 

In  the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya  the  principal  efforts  of  the  Russians 
were  directed  against  two  points :   the  Fedukhine  heights,  occupied  by 


16  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

the  French,  and  the  hills  occupied  by  the  Sardinians,  between  the  Feduk- 
hine  and  the  village  of  Karlofka  Pus,  directly  opposite  Tchorgouh. 

A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  the  propriety  of  this  attack ;  for  had 
either  of  these  points  fallen  the  other  must  have  followed;  and,  ha(>the 
Russians  followed  up  the  occupation  by  any  active  measures,  the  result 
must  have  been  the  suspension  of  the  siege.  The  question  will  naturally 
arise,  why  did  the  Russians  abandon  these  positions,  which  were  in  their 
possession  during  a  part  of  the  preceding  winter  ?  The  only  reasonable 
answer  is,  that  their  force  was  then  so  small  as  to  be  entirely  required 
for  the  defence  of  the  city. 

The  Fedukhine  heights,  the  elevation  of  which  is  not  far  from  100', 
extend  about  two  and  a  half  miles  along  the  Tchernaya;  their  horizontal 
plan  is  nearly  a  trident,  with  the  points  towards  the  stream,  the  central 
Ijranch  sending  forth  some  five  irregular  spurs ;  towards  the  stream  the 
•elopes  are  sufiiciently  steep  to  render  access  difficult,  while  full  sweep  is 
permitted  to  the  fire  of  artillery  and  musketry  from  the  summit,  and 
upon  any  one  point  from  the  collateral  spurs. 

The  aqueduct,  whitjh  is  here  a  ditch  so  broad  and  deep  as  to  be  much 
in  the  way  of  troops,  skirts  the  northern  base  of  the  heights  along  their 
whole  extent. 

The  Traktir  bridge  is  directly,  in  the  prolongation  of  the  ravine  which 
separates  the  central  from  the  eastern  branch  of  the  trident ;  for  more 
than  half  a  mile  on  each  side  of  the  bridge  the  deep  and  vertical  bed 
of  the  Tchernaya  skirts  the  aqueduct. 

The  Traktir  bridge  was  of  masonry,  and  covered  by  a  weak  tete-de- 
pont. 

Either  the  aqueduct  or  the  stream  was  in  itself  a  serious  obstacle : 
the  two  combined  constituted  a  formidable  obstacle,  requiring  the  use 
of  bridges,  situated  as  they  were  under  the  close  fire  of  the  troops  occu- 
pying the  heights. 

The  same  diffiqulties,  to  a  greater  extent,  existed  at  the  foot  of  the  Sar- 
dinian heights ;  but  the  attack  in  this  quarter  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  quite  so  pronounced  as  that  upon  the  French.  Both'of  these  posi- 
tions were  strengthened  to  a  certain  extent  by  field  works,  'especially  that 
of  lihe  Sardinians. 

It  is  certain  that  the  allies  had  received  intelligence,  from  a  neutral 
capital,  that  the  Russians  intended  attacking  on  or  about  the  18th  of 
August;  although  the  precise  point  was  not  perhaps  specified. 

The  Russian  reports  give  their  own  version  of  the  failure,  attributing 
it  to  a  failure  on  the  part  of  one  of  their  generals  to  carry  out  his  orders; 
but  the  foregoing  description  of  the  ground  may  render  it  probable  that 
the  repulse  was  due  to  the  strength  of  the  position  and  the  gallantry  of 
its  defenders,  without  seeking  for  other  causes :  it  may  safely  be  said  that 


THE   CRIMEAN  WAR.  17 

the  defeat  of  the  Russians  was  not  owing  to  any  want  of  courage  and 
impetuosity  on  their  part. 

The  events  of  Inkermann  and  Traktir  seem  to  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  Russians  moved  in  too  heavy  and  unwieldy  masses :  this  system 
of  tactics,  which  would  on  many  fields,  no  doubt,  carry  all  before  it,  if 
followed  by  a  rapid  deployment,  in  these  cases  exposed  them  to  terrible 
losses,  and  rendered  impossible  that  eflfective  development  of  numerical 
force  and  individual  exertion  which  was  necessary  to  carry  the  day. 

The  general  configuration  of  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol,  and  the  penin- 
sula to  the  south  of  it,  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  The 
most  striking  and,  in  their  bearing  upon  the  siege,  the  most  important 
features  are  :  First : — The  complete  isolation  of  the  high  plateau  of  the 
peninsula  from  the  main  Crimea  by  the  nearly  continuous  valleys  of 
Balaklava  and  the  Tchernaya.  Second  : — The  lofty  and  almost  inaccessible 
escarpment  which  limits  the  plateau  towards  the  east,  south,  and  to  a 
great  extent  on  the  north.  Third : — The  deep  and  difficult  ravines  which 
intersect  this  very  irregular  surface. 

Some  points  of  the  plateau  exceed  700'  in  elevation ;  the  average 
height  of  the  escarpment  above  the  valleys  of  Balaklava  and  the  Tcher- 
naya may  safely  be  taken  at  400'.  It  need  scarcely  be  stated  that  this 
plateau  formed  for  the  allies  a  position  of  great  strength. 

Of  the  many  ravines  by  which  it  is  intersected,  it  is  only  those  from 
the  Careening  to  the  Quarantine  bays,  inclusive,  that  have  an  immediate 
bearing  on  the  works  of  attack  and  defence.  All  of  these  have  their 
origin  quite  close  to  the  eastern  border  of  the  plateau. 

The  most  important  is  the  great  central  ravine,  the  main  branch  of 
which  commences  quite  near  the  "  Col  de  Balaklava," — the  depression 
through  which  the  main  road  from  Balaklava  to  Kamiesch  ascends  the 
plateau, — then  runs  a  little  west  of  north,  formid^,  where  it  enters  the 
town,  the  inner  harbor,  which  separates  Sebastopol  from  the  Karabelnaia 
suburb.  During  nejarly  the  first  half  of  the  siege  the  French  approaches 
were  confined  to  the  west  of  this  ravine,  occupying  all  the  space  thence 
to  the  sea;  while  the  English  were  on  the  east,  occupying  the  ground 
only  as  far  as  the  Otchakoff  ravine :  in  other  words,  the  original  French 
attack  was  directed  against  the  city  proper,  while  that  of  the  English  was 
against  a  portion  of  the  Karabelnaia  suburb. 

It  is  now  time  to  state  that  when  the  allies  reached  Balaklava  the  land 
defences  of  Sebastopol,  on  the  south  side,  consisted  of  a  loop-holed  wall, 
4'  8"  thick,  and  from  18'  to  20'  high,  extending  from  the  western  point 
of  Artillery  bay  to  the  position  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Central  Bas- 
tion; thence  around  the  Karabelnaia  suburb  to  the  main  harbor  the  only 
defence  consisted  of  the  Malakoff"  tower,  a  semicircular  structure,  withi 
two  stories  of  loop-holes  and  5  guns  in  barbette. 

2 


18  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

To  resume  the  description  of  the  ground  west  of  the  central  ravine : 
the  Artillery  Bay  ravine  commences  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  out- 
side of  the  city,  and  at  first  runs  nearly  north,  being  separated  from  a 
spur  of  the  central  ravine  by  a  ridge  about  one-eighth  of  a  mile  wide ;  on 
the  highest  point  of  this  ridge  was  situated  the  Flag-staff  Bastion,  (Bas- 
tion du  Mat ;)  the  French  approaches  followed  this  ridge,  and  extended 
across  the  Artillery  Bay  ravine,  which  is  here  by  no  means  steep  or  diffi- 
cult, but  becomes  much  more  pronounced  upon  entering  the  city,  when  it 
for  some  distance  runs  off  to  the  west  of  north. 

Just  before  this  ravine  enters  the  city  there  commences  to  the  west  of 
it,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  ridge  about  one-eighth  of  a  mile  wide,  another 
ravine,  which  runs  into  the  Quarantine  bay,  and  which  we  will  call  the 
Central  Bastion  ravine;  the  direction  of  this  ravine  is  nearly  northwest; 
near  its  head,  and  on  the  highest  point  of  the  ridge  which  separates  it 
from  the  Artillery  Bay  ravine,  is  situated  the  Central  Bastion,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  217'  above  the  sea. 

The  loop-holed  wall,  and  the  works  constructed  to  replace  or  strengthen 
it,  follow  this  ridge  for  about  three-quarters  of  the  distance  to  the  Qua- 
rantine batteries,  and  then  turn  off  to  the  north;  from  this  angle  to  the 
batteries  a  line  of  works  called  the  Quarantine  redans  was  erected  during 
the  siege. 

The  French  attacks  against  the  Central  Bastion  followed  the  ridge 
on  which  it  was  built,  and  to  the  westward  occupied  the  irregular  ridge 
between  the  Central  Bastion  ravine  and  the  Quarantine  Bay  ravine,  then 
crossed  this  last  ravine  and  terminated  at  the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea, 
where  powerful  batteries  were  erected.  The  Central  Bastion  ravine  has 
rather  gentle  slopes,  and  is  by  no  means  so  difficult  as  those  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  great  central  ravine  :  in  fact,  approaches  could  be  carried  over 
it,  and  did,  indeed,  eAend  into  it. 

Passing  to  the  east  of  the  central  ravine,  Cathcart's  hill,  which  will  be 
found  on  all  the  maps,  may  be  taken  as  a  starting-poiyt. 

On  the  west  and  east  sides  of  this  hill  two  difficult  ravines  commence : 
the  first,  called  by  the  English  the  Valley  of  Death,  unites  with  the  cen- 
tral ravine  about  one  mile  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  inner  har- 
bor ;  the  second,  by  which  the  Woronzoff  road  enters  the  city,  joins  the 
central  ravine  at  the  very  end  of  the  inner  harbor.  The  isolated  spur 
thus  formed  was  occupied  by  the  English  left  attack,  the  only  object  of 
which  was  to  establish  batteries  to  assist  the  French  attack  upon  the 
Flag-staff  Bastion,  and  the  English  right  attack  upon  the  Redan,  as  well 
as  to  protect  the  flanks  of  those  attacks ;  for  the  ravines  bordering  this 
spur  are  so  deep  and  difficult  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  cross  them 
either  by  trenches  or  assaulting  columns. 

Farther  to  the  east  is  the  Otchakoff  ravine,  running  nearly  parallel  to 


THE   CRIMEAN  WAR.  19 

the  Woronzoff  ravine,  much  less  difficult,  and  directed  cipon  the  Dock 
Yard  bay.  On  the  highest  point  of  the  ridge  separating  the  two  ravines 
last  named,  and  at  its  end  nearest  the  town,  were  situated  the  Redan  and 
the  Barrack  battery;  the  English  right  attack  followed  the  ridge.  To 
the  eastward  of  the  Otchakoflf  ravine,  and  nearly  parallel  to  it,  is  the 
Careening  Bay  ravine,  the  most  difficult  of  all.  On  the  highest  point  at 
the  end  of  the  ridge  thus  formed  was  placed  the  Malakoff,  at  an  elevation 
of  333' ;  the  Little  Redan  (Batterie  Noire)  occupied  a  considerably  lower 
point  to  the  northeast  of  the  Malakoff,  while  the  work  known  as  the 
Mamelon  Vert,  or  Brangion  redoubt,  crowned  a  hill  on  the  same  ridge, 
about  three-eighths  of  a  mile  to  the  southeast  of  the  Malakoff,  and  40' 
more  elevated ;  the  French  attacks  against  the  three  works  named  occu- 
pied the  summit  and  higher  slopes  of  the  ridge. 

Between  the  Careening  Bay  ravine  and  the  main  harbor  is  situated  the 
high  and  narrow  ridge  known  as  Mount  Sapoune.  Points  of  this  ridge 
were  occupied  by  the  Volhynia  and  Selenghinsk  redoubts,  (ouvrages 
blancs,)  which  acted  upon  the  flank  of  the  French  approaches  against  the 
Mamelon,  and  would  have  taken  in  reverse  the  approaches  thence  against 
the  Malakoff.  The  French  approaches  against  the  redoubts  wound  along 
the  summit  of  the  Sapoune  ridge.  In  rear  of  the  Redan  and  Malakoff, 
more  especially  in  the  latter  case,  the  ground  fell  rapidly  to  the  level  of 
the  Karabelnaia  and  the  bay  j  in  rear  of  the  loop-holed  wall  the  ground 
also  soon  fell  rapidly  into  the  Artillery  Bay  ravine,  leaving,  however,  a 
plateau  of  some  little  width  immediately  behind  the  defences,  which  thus 
screened  the  greater  part  of  the  town  and  harbor  from  the  view  of  those 
in  the  trenches. 

From  the  course  known  to  have  been  pursued  by  fhe  Russians  in  other 
cases,  the  nature  of  the  ground,  the  appearance  of  the  works  at  the  close 
of  the  siege,  and  the  remarks  of  officers  on  both  sides,  it  would  appear 
that  when  Todtleben  was  called  upon  to  fortify  Sebastopol,  in  presence  of 
the  enemy,  he  commenced  by  occupying  most  of  the  important  points 
that  have  been  mentioned  by  detached  works,  generally  closed  at  the 
gorge.  The  first  efforts  of  the  garrison  were  directed  towards  giving  these 
sufficient  strength  to  resist  assault;  afterwards  they  were  connected  by 
re-entering  lines  of  a  weaker  profile,  which  served  to  enfilade  the  ravines 
and  flank  the  main  works.  These  lines  were  generally,  but  not  always, 
continuous. 

One  of  the  early  measures  was  to  construct  rifle-pits,  which  were  often 
advanced  to  a  very  considerable  distance. 

The  most  important  points  of  the  main  line  of  defence  should  pro- 
bably be  classed  in  the  following  order  of  strength :  1st.  The  Flag-staff 
Bastion;  2d.  Central  Bastion;  3d.  Malakoff;  4th.  Redan;  5th.  Little 
Redan. 


20  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  Flag-staflF  Bastion  was,  on  account  of  the  ground,  a  somewhat  irre- 
gular figure, — nearly  a  lunette.  The  ditch  of  the  right  face  was  flanked 
by  two  guns  in  a  blinded  caponi^re ;  the  left  face  was  flanked  by  four 
guns,  in  a  return  of  the  epaulment  which  extended  from  the  rear  of  the 
work  along  the  crest  of  the  central  ravine,  and  finally  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  valley.  The  command  of  the  work  could  not  have  varied  much 
from  15'.  The  ditch  was  about  30'  wide,  and  from  12'  to  15'  deep;  its 
slopes  steep,  often  vertical.  Against  a  portion  of  the  scarp,  near  the 
salient,  rested  a  row  of  palisades  some  10'  high,  and  uninjured  by  the  fire. 
This  was  the  only  case  of  palisading  observed  in  any  part  of  the  ditches. 
The  work  was  provided  with  a  glacis  and  covered  way,  the  interior  slope  of 
the  latter  revetted  with  gabions.  Shelters  were  excavated  in  the  counter- 
scarp, under  the  covered  way.  There  was  a  small  battery  in  the  covered 
way  of  the  left  face.  It  was  in  front  of  this  bastion  that  the  principal 
mining  operations  were  conducted :  on  the  part  of  the  French  to  advance 
their  approaches,  on  the  part  of  the  Russians  to  frustrate  the  attempt. 
The  craters  were  from  12'  to  15'  in  depth,  and  in  a  very  rocky  soil.  The 
French  never  succeeded  in  carrying  the  work,  nor  in  crowning  the  crest 
of  the  glacis. 

Some  portions  of  the  exterior  slope  were  revetted  with  gabions.  These 
were  sadly  disfigured,  but  still  presented  a  formidable  obstacle.  It  is 
most  probable  that  this  system  was  resorted  to  only  as  a  rapid  means  of 
repairing  damages. 

The  guns  were  mounted  on  a  narrow  rampart,  with  traverses  for  each 
gun,  and  parados  on  the  right  face.  Here,  as  well  as  in  all  the  other  land 
defences,  ships'  guns  mounted  on  ships'  carriages,  and  worked  by  side 
tackle  and  breechings,  were  alone  employed.  In  this  battery  many  of 
the  embrasures  were  revetted  with  the  commop  boiler-iron  ships'  water- 
tanks,  cubes  4'  on  each  edge.  These  were  filled  with  earth,  and  three 
were  employed  to  revet  each  cheek.  In  one  embrasure  thirteen  shot  and 
shell  had  struck  a  che6k  thus  revetted,  yet  the  embrasure  was  perfectly 
serviceable.  In  some  cases  traverses  were  made  of  these  tanks.  Their 
sides  were  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  rope  mantelets.  The  rope  man- 
telets were  suspended  from  a  horizontal  spar  laid  across  the  top  of  the 
embrasure  and  lashed  to  stout  stakes :  they  were  4"  thick,  and  made  of 
three  thicknesses  of  rope  sewed  together.  A  hole  was  left  in  the  lower 
part  for  the  gun  to  run  through,  and  often  a  circle  of  similar  construction 
was  placed  upon  the  gun,  a  small  aperture  being  left  for  pointing.  This" 
arrangement  was  rendered  indispensable  by  the  great  depth  of  embrasure 
required  for  ships'  carriages,  and  was  found  to  afford  ample  protection 
against  rifle-balls  and  small  grape. 

The  bomb-proofs  were  generally  ample  in  number ;  they  were  sometimes 
under  the  rampart,  sometimes  under  the  second  line  of  defence,  (where 


THE    CRIMEAN    WAR.  21 

such  a  line  existed,)  often  under  special  traverses,  and  occasionally  entirely 
under  ground.  Their  height  was  generally  6'  and  upwards,  the  width 
sufficient  for  two  rows  of  banquette  beds ;  the  length  varied  exceedingly  j 
the  roof  was  generally  composed  of  18"  timber,  for  the  most  part  pieces 
of  masts ;  the  minimum  depth  of  earth  on  top  seemed  to  be  6'.  As  I 
observed  none  which  were  broken  in  by  shells,  it  may  be  a  fair  inference 
that  this  depth  was  sufficient. 

Many  of  the  bomb-proofs  were  lined  with  boards,  had  fireplaces  and 
chimneys,  were  well  ventilated,  and  whitewashed.  Latrines  were  arranged 
in  special  bomb-proofs,  movable  casks  with  seats  over  them  being  employed. 

The  Flag-staflf  Bastion  had  a  second  line  of  defence,  which  was  filled 
with  bomb-proofs.  » 

The  Central  was  similar  in  construction  to,  yet  weaker  in  profile  than, 
the  Flag-stafi"  Bastion;  its  steep  scarp  and  counterscarp  rendered  it,  indeed, 
a  formidable  obstacle  to  assault.  With  such  defenders  as  the  Russians, 
it  is  no  discredit  to  the  French  that  their  patient  yet  brilliant  effijrts 
failed  to  achieve  success.  The  loop-holed  wall  was  either  covered  by  a 
rampart  and  parapet,  or  entirely  replaced  by  a  simple  parapet;  wherever 
it  remained  exposed  it  was  much  injured  by  the  long  cannonade  to  which 
it  was  subjected. 

The  Quarantine  Bedans  were  little  more  than  a  simple  trench,  with 
the  gabionade  thrown  forward  about  3',  thus  affording  a  banquette ;  the 
soil  in  this  part  was  even  more  rocky  than  in  front  of  the  bastions  just 
described. 

The  strength  of  profile  of  the  works  east  of  the  central  ravine  was  very 
much  less  than  that  of  the  Flag-staff  and  Central  Bastions.  The  remem- 
brance of  the  history  of  the  progress  of  the  siege  will  explain  the  seeming 
anomaly  that  points,  now  generally  considered  of  secondary  importance, 
should  be  more  strongly  fortified  than  those  which  common  opinion  pro- 
nounces the  key-points  of  the  position.  Until  the  spring  of  1855,  all  the 
efforts  of  the  French  were  directed  against  the  Flag-staff  and  Central 
Bastions ;  and  for  some  reason  or  other  (probably  the  languor  with  which 
their  approaches  were  pushed)  the  Russians  seemed  to  attach  very  little 
importance  to  the  operations  of  the  English.  It  was  therefore  natural 
and  proper  that  the  Russians  should  avail  themselves  of  the  time  em- 
ployed by  the  allies  in  preparing  to  open  their  fire,  and  of  the  slackness 
of  the  fire  during  the  winter,  to  turn  all  their  efforts  upon  the  points 
attacked.  It  is  probable  that  serious  work  upon  the  Malakoff  scarcely 
commenced  before  the  French  opened  their  trenches  against  it :  it  was 
therefore  carried  on  under  much  more  unfavorable  circumstances. 

In  the  leisurely  construction  of  a  system  of  permanent  defences  for 
Sebastopol,  the  neglect  of  the  Malakoff  and  Sapoune  ridges  would  have 
been  indeed  inexcusable;  but  the  actual  works  were  constructed  for  the 


22  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

most  part  under  fire,  and  always  in  sight  of  the  enemy.  The  garrison 
was  for  a  long  time  weak  for  so  extensive  a  position,  and  the  supply  of 
tools  was  always  inadequate  in  amount  and  wretched  in  quality :  looking 
at  their  miserable  tools,  it  was  a  source  of  astonishment  that  such  gigantic 
results  could  have  been  achieved  with  such  paltry  means. 

The  Redan  was  more  properly  a  salient  bastion,  and  appearances  indi- 
cated that  it  was  originally  a  detached  lunette,  closed  at  the  gorge  by  a 
bastioned  front,  having  a  good  ditch,  banquette,  &c. ;  in  fact,  this  gorge 
front  still  existed  in  fair  condition  at  the  close  of  the  siege,  the  left  half 
bastion  alone  having,  for  some  reason,  been  nearly  levelled.  The  Redan 
was  afterwards  connected  with  the  Barrack  battery  on  the  one  hand,  and 
oj^  the  other  extended  by  the  line  of  works  crowning  the  western  crest 
of  the  Otchakoff  ravine.  The  nature  of  the  ground,  especially  near  the 
salient,  was  such  that  the  scarp  and  counterscarp  were  more  gentle  than 
in  the  bastions  already  described.  Without  pretending  to  enter  into 
details  which  would  necessarily  be  imperfect,  the  best  practical  idea  of 
the  real  nature  of  the  work  will  be  derived  from  the  fact '  that,  although 
no  breach  was  made,  the  English,  on  the  8th  September,  entered  the 
work  without  using  the  ladders.  The  details  of  the  interior  were  similar 
to  those  of  the  Flag-staff  Bastion,  the  guns  being  covered  by  traverses 
and  parados,  which  formed  shelters  very  favorable  to  an  attacking  column 
after  it  had  once  effected  an  entrance.  It  should  be  distinctly  stated 
that  the  Redan  had  no  second  line  of  defence. 

In  front  the  ground  has  a  very  gentle  slope  and  is  unobstructed;  the 
works  connecting  the  Redan  with  the  Barrack  battery  border  the  preci- 
pitous side  of  the  great  ravine ;  the  ground  occupied  by  the  work  itself 
slopes  gently  from  the  salient  towards  the  gorge ;  in  rear  it  falls  rapidly 
towards  the  inner  harbor,  but  somewhat  less  so  to  the  north,  so  that  access 
is  not  very  difficult  from  that  direction. 

In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Redan  there  was  a  series  of  remarkable 
bomb-proofs,  excavated  in  the  solid  rock :  first,  a  ditch  12'  wide  and  4' 
deep  was  excavated ;  then  holes  for  a  couple  of  men  each  were  formed  on 
each  side  of  the  ditch,  each  hole  being  6'  long,  5'  high,  and  3'  wide. 

In  the  same  locality  arrangements  were  observed  for  firing  canister 
from  a  13"  mortar. 

The  line  of  works  extending  from  the  Redan  along  the  crest  of  the 
Otchakoff  ravine  varied  much  at  different  points ;  in  some  places  the  ditch 
was  excavated  to  the  depth  of  6'  and  8'  in  the  rock,  in  others  the  coun- 
terscarp was  wholly  artificial;  portions  of  the  abatis  still  remained  in 
front  of  this  line.  This  line  did  not  extend  continuously  to  the  Malakoff, 
but  was  broken  where  it  crossed  the  Otchakoff  ravine,  detached  retired 
batteries  enfilading  the  latter. 

The  Malakoff  also  was  a  salient  bastion,  its  right  face  being  slightly 


THE   CRIMEAN  WAR.  23 

broken  to  the  front;  the  bastion  enclosed  the  remains  of  the  tower,  the 
lower  story  of  which  was  covered  by  the  parapet. 

An  ample  estimate  for  the  profile  of  the  Malakoff  at  the  salient  would 
probably  be,  command  14' j  thickness  of  parapet,  18';  ditch,  18'  wide  and 
12'  deep.  At  all  events,  such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  that  the  Zouaves, 
who  formed  the  storming  party  on  the  8th  September,  entered  the  work 
without  the  aid  of  ladders. 

The  Malakoff  Bastion  (called  by  the  Russians  Korniloff,  the  name 
Malakoff  being  applied  by  them  only  to  the  tower)  occupied  the  eastern 
crest  of  a  hill  rising  from  the  general  surface  of  the  ridge,  and  terminating 
it  towards  the  town ;  the  slope  of  the  hill  towards  the  French  approaches 
was  gentle,  while  towards  the  Karabelnaia  suburb  it  was  steep,  difficult, 
and  obstructed  in  the  extreme ;  to  the  north  and  south  the  ground  fell 
away  rapidly.  In  rear  of  the  bastion  an  irregular  redoubt  occupied  the 
remainder  of  the  summit  of  the  hill ;  the  parapet  did  not  always  follow  the 
ditch,  but  was  often  broken  into  saw-teeth  (to  obtain  better  directions  for 
the  guns)  while  the  ditch  ran  in  a  straight  line.  With  regard  to  the 
bastion  and  redoubt  two  errors  were  committed :  in  the  first  place,  two 
epaulments  were  left  standing,  extending  from  near  the  flanks  of  the 
bastion  to  the  redoubt,  which  afforded  easy  access  to  the  latter  from  the 
parapet  of  the  former ;  in  the  second  place,  the  bastion  was  literally  filled 
with  traverses  covering  the  bomb-proof  shelters ;  these  traverses  entirely 
nullified  the  effect  of  the  fire  of  the  redoubt  upon  the  troops  who  gained 
the  bastion,  and  afforded  them  complete  shelter.  As  these  bomb-proofs 
were  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  the  garrison  to  hold  the  work  during 
the  bombardment,  it  is  not  perhaps  exactly  proper  to  designate  their  con- 
struction as  an  error,  although  their  existence  proved  fatal  at  the  time  of 
the  assault.  The  evil  might  have  been  remedied  either  by  sinking  the 
bomb-proofs  entirely  under  ground,  or  by  giving  to  the  mass  of  earth 
above  a  glacis  slope  towards  the  salient;  although  the  latter  arrangement 
would  have  required  much  space.  The  interior  slopes  of  all  the  works 
were  revetted  with  gabions,  crowned  with  fascines  and  sand-bags.  From 
the  Malakoff  to  the  Little  Redan  abatis,  military  pits,  spikes,  and  caltrops 
with  four  barbed  points,  stuck  through  planks,  were  freely  employed. 
These  things  were  also  employed  in  front  of  other  parts  of  the  defences. 
Explosive  machines,  on  the  Jacobi  principle,  were  also  employed. 

The  Russian  engineers  appeared  to  have  relied  upon  the  artillery  fire  of 
the  collateral  works  for  flanking  defences  and  acting  upon  the  ground  in 
front  of  any  particular  work,  rather  than  upon  the  immediate  flanking 
arrangements  of  the  special  work  in  question.  The  entire  absence  of 
blinded. batteries  is  somewhat  remarkable.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
such  batteries  at  the  salients  of  the  principal  works  would  have  exercised 
a  very  great  influence. 


24  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

The  Mamelon  Vert  was  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  mound  of  no  con- 
siderable elevation  above  the  general  surface  of  the  ridge;  the  eastern 
slope  was  gentle,  while  it  was  more  abrupt  on  the  other  sides,  particularly 
towards  the  west.  It  was  difficult  or  impossible  to  determine  the  original 
form  of  the  work.  It  appeared  to  have  been  a  redan,  with  a  pan-coupe, 
the  right  face  flanked  by  the  Malakoff,  the  left  by  the  Little  Redan,  the 
pan-coup6  by  the  Sapoune  redoubts ;  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was 
a  lunette.  The  Sapoune  redoubts  appear  to  have  been  lunettes,  with  a 
command  of  7',  the  ditch  5'  deep  and  12'  wide,  a  glacis  2'  in  height. 
Even  in  these  detached  works  excellent  bomb-proofs  were  provided. 

The  Eussian  counter-approaches  generally  consisted  of  fleches,  united 
by  a  simple  trench. 

The  famous  rifle-pits  varied  much  in  character.  Sometimes  they  con- 
sisted merely  of  a  little  pile  of  stones,  or  two  gabions,  placed  *on  their 
sides,  forming  an  angle  merely  sufficient  to  shelter  one  man ;  at  other 
times,  of  a  hole  in  the  ground  for  four  or  five  men ;  again,  of  semicircle^ 
or  filches  capable  of  holding  from  ten  to  forty  men. 

In  front  of  the  Volhynian  redoubt  there  were  two  lines  of  these  semi- 
circular shelters,  uniting  at  an  acute  angle  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  in  advance  of  the  work,  and  extending  across  the  ridge.  In  advance 
of  the  angle  were  two  rows  of  small  ones  for  one  or  two  men  each.  These 
particular  semicircles  were  eight  paces  wide  at  the  gorge,  had  a  parapet 
4'  high,  the  interior  being  excavated.  In  many  cases  these  pits  were 
thrown  much  farther  in  advance,  and  in  very  exposed  situations.  They 
contributed  very  materially  towards  impeding  the  progress  of  the  ap- 
proaches. 

From  the  preceding  hasty  and  imperfect  account  of  the  defences  of  Se- 
bastopol,  it  will  appear  how  little  foundation  there  was  for  the  generally 
received  accounts  of  the  stupendous  dimensions  of  the  works,  and  of  new 
systems  of  fortifications  brought  into  play.  The  plain  truth  is  that  these 
defences  were  simple  temporary  fortifications  of  rather  greater  dimensions 
than  usual,  and  that  not  a  single  new  principle  of  engineering  was  there 
developed.  It  is  true  that  there  were  several  novel  minor  details,  such  as 
the  rope  mantelets,  the  use  of  the  iron  tanks,  &c. ;  but  the  whole  merit 
consisted  in  the  admirable  adaptation  of  well-known  principles  to  the 
peculiar  locality  and  circumstances  of  the  case.  Neither  can  it  be  asserted 
that  the  plans  of  the  various  works  were  perfect.  On  the  contrary,  there 
is  no  impropriety  in  believing  that,  if  Todtleben  were  called  upon  to  do 
the  same  work  over  again,  he  would  probably  introduce  better  close-flank- 
ing arrangements. 

.  These  remarks  are  not  intended  to,  nor  can  they,  detract  from  the  repu- 
tation of  the  Russian  engineer.  His  labors  and  their  results  will  be 
handed  down  in  history  as  the  most  triumphant  and  enduring  monument 


THE   CRIMEAN   WAR.  25 

of  tlie  value  of  fortifications,  and  his  name  must  ever  be  placed  in  the 
first  rank  of  military  engineers.  But,  in  our  admiration  of  the  talent  and 
energy  of  the  engineer,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  inert  masses 
which  he  raised  would  have  been  useless  without  the  skilful  artillery  and 
heroic  infantry  who  defended  them.  Much  stronger  places  than  ^ebas- 
topol  have  often  fallen  under  far  less  obstinate  and  well-combined  attacks 
than  that  to  which  it  was  subjected.  There  can  be  no  danger  in  express- 
ing the  conviction  that  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  called  forth  the  most 
magnificent  defence  of  fortifications  that  has  ever  yet  occurred. 

This  would  seem  to  be  the  proper  place  to  notice  a  popular  fallacy  which, 
for  a  time  at  least,  gained  extensive  credence.  It  was,  that  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol  proved  the  superiority  of  temporary  (earthen)  fortifications 
(Jver  those  of  a  permanent  nature.  It  is  easy  to  show  that  it  proved 
nothing  of  the  kind,  but  that  it  only  proved  that  temporary  works  in  the 
hands  of  a  brave  and  skilful  garrison  are  susceptible  of  a  longer  defence 
than  was  generally  supposed.  They  were  attacked  as  field  works  never 
were  before,  and  were  defended  as  field  works  never  had  been  defended. 
The  main  difference  between  properly-constructed  permanent  fortifications 
(intended  to  resist  a  siege)  and  temporary  works  is,  that  the  latter  seldom 
present  an  insuperable  obstacle  against  assault,  while  the  former  always 
do.  In  addition,  permanent  works  have  a  better  command  over  the 
adjacent  country,  and  are  more  carefully  and  perfectly  planned.  The 
masonry  walls,  which  render  an  assault  impossible,  cannot  be  seen  from 
the  distance,  and  can  be  destroyed  only  by  establishing  batteries  on  the 
crest  of  the  glacis  or  the  edge  of  the  ditch ;  the  earthen  parapets  alone 
being  visible  beyond  that  point,  they  may,  until  the  besiegers  arrive  there, 
be  regarded  in  the  same  light  as  field  works,  with  the  difference  that  the 
garrison  are  not  harassed  by  the  necessity  of  being  constantly  prepared 
to  repel  an  assault.  Now,  in  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  the  trenches  of  the 
besiegers  never  reached  the  edge  of  the  ditch ;  so  that,  had  the  fortifica- 
tion been  a  permanent  one,  the  most  difficult,  slow,  and  dangerous  part  of 
the  siege  remained  to  be  undertaken,  viz. : — the  crowning  of  the  covered 
way,  the  establishment  of  the  breach  batteries,  the  descent  and  passage 
of  the  ditch,  and  the  assault  of  the  breach  :  in  other  words,  at  the  moment 
when  the  weakness  of  the  temporary  works  became  apparent  and  fatal, 
the  true  strength  of  the  permanent  defences  would  have  commenced 
coming  into  play. 

Assuming  the  progress  of  the  attack  to  have  been  as  rapid  as  it  was 
under  existing  circumstances,  the  besiegers,  on  the  8th  of  September, 
would  not  yet  have  been  in  a  condition  to  crown  the  covered  way,  the 
siege  would  certainly  have  extended  into  the  winter;  and  it  may  even  be 
doubted  whether  the  place  would  eventually  have  fallen,  until  the  allies 
were  in  sufficient  force  to  invest  the  north  as  well  as  the  south  side. 


26  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

From  the  fleet  and  the  naval  arsenals  were  undoubtedly  derived  the 
means  of  arming  and  equipping  the  land  defences;  on  many  occasions 
the  fire  of  the  vessels  up  the  ravines,  as  well  as  their  vertical  fire,  was 
probably  attended  with  effect:  yet  I  can  see  no  reason  to  coincide  in  the 
opinion  that  the  presence  of  the  fleet  justified  the  allies  in  failing  to 
advance  upon  the  town  immediately  after  their  arrival  in  front  of  it.  No 
doubt  the  fire  of  the  vessels  would  have  rendered  it  impossible  for  the 
allies  to  have  occupied  immediately  the  lower  parts  of  the  town  and  the 
shores  of  the  harbor;  but  the  nature  of  the  ground  was  such  that  they 
could  have  opposed  no  serious  resistance  to  the  allied  occupation  of  the 
positions  subsequently  occupied  by  the  Malakofi",  Redan,  and  Flag-stafi" 
Bastion.  Once  holding  these  points,  it  would  have  been  easy  for  the 
allies  to  establish  batteries  commanding  at  once  the  fleet  and  the  town ; 
defence  would  have  been  impossible,  and  the  opening  of  their  fire  must 
have  been  the  signal  alike  for  the  destruction  of  the  fleet  and  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  south  side. 

We  will  now  pass  to  the  works  of  attack. 

So  great  was  their  extent,  some  6  miles  from  the  extreme  right  to  the 
farthest  left,  with  a  development  that  has  been  stated,  probably  without 
exaggeration,  to  exceed  40  miles,  and  so  broken  was  the  ground  over 
which  they  stretched,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  in  a  report  like  this 
any  thing  approaching  to  a  definite  idea  of  their  plan.  An  endeavor  will 
be  made  merely  to  point  out  how  far  the  besiegers  departed  from,  or  con- 
formed to,  their  established  systems  for  works  of  this  nature. 

As  the  selection  of  the  points  of  attack,  and  the  positions  to  be  occu- 
pied to  cover  the  siege,  must  first  have  engaged  the  attention  of  the  allied 
commanders,  they  will  naturally  be  the  first  objects  for  our  consideration. 

In  the  determination  of  the  position  for  covering  the  siege  there  were 
two  things  to  be  considered :  1st,  the  power  of  resisting  the  eff^orts  of  a 
relieving  army ;  2d,  the  facility  of  bringing  up  to  the  front  the  various 
supplies  required  in  the  operations. 

The  strength  of  the  position  afforded  by  the  plateau  of  the  Chersonese 
has  already  been  referred  to ;  with  the  small  force  at  first  present  on  the 
part  of  the  allies,  it  is  certain  that  their  position  would  have  been  much 
stronger  and  more  secure  had  they  confined  themselves  to  the  occupation 
of  the  plateau,  holding  the  valleys  to  the  east  only  by  detachments  to 
observe  the  enemy.  The  English,  supposing  that  their  position  and 
point  of  attack  remained  as  it  was,  would  have  had  a  somewhat  greater 
distance  to  pass  over  in  the  transportation  of  their  supplies;  but  by 
abandoning  Balaklava  for  Kazatch  they  would  have  obtained  a  much 
more  extensive  and  convenient  harbor,  and  the  united  efforts  of  the  two 
armies  would  have  enabled  them  to  construct,  in  ample  season,  a  good 


THE    CRIMEAN   WAR.  27 

road  for  the  passage  of  their  trains.  Had  the  siege  been  undertaken  by 
a  French  army  alone,  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  Kamiesch  and 
Kazatch  would  have  been  used  to  the  exclusion  of  Balaklava;  at  all 
events,  Balaklava  would  have  been  employed  only  as  a  temporary  depot, 
when  the  roads  were  good  and  the  enemy  at  a  distance  :  here  the  insupe- 
rable evils  of  a  divided  command  probably  intervened.  In  this  case  the 
barren  and  disastrous  day  of  Balaklava  would  never  have  occurred ;  the 
force  and  labor  employed  in  protecting  Balaklava  would  have  placed  the 
position  of  Inkermann  in  such  a  state  of  defence  as  either  to  have  de- 
terred the  Russians  from  engaging  in  the  battle,  or  to  have  secured  the 
victory  to  the  allies  without  the  frightful  cost  and  great  uncertainty 
attending  that  eventful  contest. 

In  the  actual  condition  of  affairs,  if  either  on  the  25th  October  or  the 
5th  November  the  Russians  had  succeeded  in  carrying  Balaklava,  the 
English  army  would  have  been  reduced  to  the  most  desperate  extremity 
by  the  total  loss  of  all  its  supplies  and  means  of  transportation.  It  is 
possible  that  the  result  would  have  been  the  total  abandonment  of  the 
siege,  and  a  retreat  upon  Kamiesch,  to  embark  there  as  rapidly  as  trans- 
portation could  be  obtained. 

To  anticipate  objections,  it  may  be  stated  that,  during  the  winter  of 
1854  and  1855,  no  supplies  were  drawn  from  the  country  beyond  Balak- 
lava, and  that  the  only  advantages  derived  from  its  occupation  were : — 
inextricable  confusion  in  unloading  vessels  and  despatching  supplies, 
arising  from  the  want  of  size  of  the  harbor,  and  the  steepness  of  its 
banks ;  wretched  roads  over  the  muddy  soil ;  a  steep  ascent  to  be  over- 
come in  reaching  the  plateau ;  finally,  the  constant  and  lively  anticipation 
of  being  entirely  deprived  of  these  uncertain  advantages  upon  the  first  reso- 
lute attack  by  the  enemy  in  force.  The  most  probable  reasons  for  the  selec- 
tion of  Balaklava  as  the  English  depot  are,  that  it  was  somewhat  nearer 
the  position  on  the  plateau;  that  it  was- not  taken  by  the  French;  and 
that,  since  it  existed,  it  would  be  a  pity  that  it  should  remain  idle. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  point  of  attack. 

The  facts  of  the  case  are  well  known.  For  many  months  the  operations 
of  the  French  were  directed  entirely  against  the  Flag-staff  and  Central 
Bastions,  the  English  being  engaged  in  what  may  be  termed  two  false 
attacks  against  the  Redan. 

It  was  not  until  the  spring  of  1855  that  the  efforts  of  the  French 
were  at  last  turned  towards  securing  possession  of  the  Malakoff. 

To  appreciate  the  merits  of  this  question,  it  is  necessary  again  to  refer 
to  the  map,  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  heights  overlooking  the  Karabelnaia 
were  considerably  more  elevated  than  those  bordering  upon  the  main  city, 
and  that  the  docks  and  other  naval,  as  well  as  military,  establishments 
were  all  located  in  the  Karabelnaia  suburb. 


28  THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

Were  the  Flag-staff  Bastion  carried,  but  a  single  step  was  gained; 
beyond  it  existed  at  least  two  lines  of  defence,  both  difl&cult  to  carry, 
before  even  the  main  city  was  reached.  While  these  new  approaches 
were  being  constructed,  it  would  have  been  a  simple  matter  for  the 
Russians  to  border  the  commanding  heights  of  the  Karabelnaia  with  new 
batteries  directed  against  the  town;  the  fire  from  these,  together  with 
that  from  the  works  on  the  north  side,  would  have  rendered  the  victors 
very  uncomfortable  and  insecure  in  their  barren  conquest ;  and  the  fleet 
could  have  retired  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Careening  bay,  where  it,  as  well 
as  the  docks,  would  have  been  secure  against  direct  injury. 

By  taking  the  Malakoff,  the  fleet  and  the  establishments  of  the  Rus- 
sians lay  exposed  at  the  feet  of  the  allies ;  its  commanding  position  and 
proximity  to  the  main  harbor  rendered  further  resistance  useless  when 
once  occupied  by  them.  Considerations  relating  to  the  facility  of  bring- 
ing up  supplies  and  covering  their  depot  very  probably  determined  the 
direction  of  the  early  French  attacks,  but  by  no  means  diminish  the 
credit  due  to  General  Neil,  who  first  turned  the  efforts  of  his  countrymen 
in  the  right  direction. 

If  a  deficiency  in  men  and  means  is  assigned  as  a  reason  for  the  early 
operations  of  the  allies,  it  is  but  another  proof  that,  in  undertaking  the 
affair,  they  neglected  one  of  the  clearest  rules  of  war;  that  is,  to  under- 
take no  important  operation  without  full  and  reliable  information  as  to 
the  obstacles  to  be  overcome,  and  the  means  of  resistance  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy. 

Enough  has  already  been  said  to  justify  the  belief  that  a  dilemma, 
diflS.cult  of  solution,  might  be  presented  for  the  consideration  of  the  allies  : 
on  the  one  hand,  the  comparatively  small  scale  upon  which  the  original 
expedition  was  organized, — the  intimation  contained  in  some  of  the  French 
instructions  that  "  half  a  siege  train"  would  suffice  to  capture  Sebastopol, 
and  the  absence  of  all  preparations  for  passing  the  winter  in  the  Crimea, 
would  indicate  that  the  allied  governments  were  well  aware  of  the  real 
weakness  of  Sebastopol  at  that  time,  and  intended  that  it  should  be  carried 
by  a  "  coup  de  vigeur ;"  on  the  other  hand,  from  the  moment  the  armies 
landed,  every  movement  was  conducted  in  a  manner  indicating  that  the 
generals  were  under  the  impression  that  formidable  defences  were  in 
front  of  them,  and  that  nothing  serious  could  be  attempted  until  further 
supplies  and  reinforcements  were  received. 

In  regard  to  the  detailed  execution  of  the  French  attacks,  little  or 
nothing  novel  is  to  be  observed.  Even  when  coolly  examining  the 
direction  of  their  trenches,  after  the  close  of  the  siege,  it  was  very  rarely 
that  a  faulty  direction  could  be  detected :  they  always  afforded  excellent 
cover,  and  were  well  defiladed;  in  some  cases  the  excavation  of  the 
double  direct  sap  was  carried  to  the  depth  of  6F  in  the  solid  rock. 


THE    CRIMEAN   WAR.  .  29 

The  execution  of  many  of  the  saps  and  batteries  was  worthy  of  a  school 
of  practice.  In  the  parallels,  bomb-proofs  were  provided  as  temporary 
hospitals,  ofl&ces  for  the  generals  on  duty,  &c.  They  did  not  use  the 
sapper  armor.  The  use  of  the  sap  roller  was  often  attempted,  but  it 
could  be  employed  only  during  the  latter  part  of  the  attack  upon  the 
Malakoff,  when  the  fire  of  the  Russian  artillery  was  nearly  extinguished 
by  the  mortars ;  before  that,  as  soon  as  a  sap  roller  was  placed  in  position 
some  30  guns  would  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  the  result  being  its 
immediate  destruction. 

It  may  justly  be  said  of  the  French  approaches,  that  they  admirably 
carried  into  practice  their  system  of  sapping.  The  technical  skill  and 
patient  courage  evinced  by  their  officers  and  men  in  pushing  forward 
such  excellent  approaches,  under  a  most  deadly  fire,  is  worthy  of  all  com- 
mendation, and  is  such  as  might  have  been  expected  from  the  antecedents 
of  their  corps  of  engineers.  With  regard  to  the  English  the  case  was 
difi"erent:  it  seemed  as  if  they  systematically  abandoned  the  excellent 
system  taught  and  perfected  with  so  much  care  at  Chatham. 

Whenever  the  ground  was  difficult,  their  trenches  generally  ceased  to 
afi"ord  shelter ;  a  shallow  excavation  in  the  rock,  and  a  few  stones  thrown 
up  in  front,  appeared  to  be  all  that  was  considered  necessary  in  such 
cases.  They  were  often  faulty  in  direction  as  well  as  in  profile,  being 
not  unfrequently  badly  defiladed,  or  not  gaining  ground  enough,  and 
entirely  too  cramped ;  nor  were  they  pushed  as  close  to  the  Redan  as 
they  ought  to  have  been  before  giving  the  assault. 

In  too  many  cases  the  expression  "  tatonnement"  of  the  French  would 
seem  to  convey  the  best  idea  of  their  operations.  Their  batteries,  how- 
ever, were  very  well  constructed.  Their  magazines,  platforms,  &c.,  were 
usually  similar  to  those  adopted  at  Chatham,  although  unnecessary  devia- 
tions were  sometimes  complained  of. 

They  employed  neither  armor  nor  the  full  sap;  sometimes  the  half- 
full,  but  generally  the  flying  sap  were  employed.  The  excellent  English 
magazines  were  generally  covered  with  7"  or  8"  timber,  2  layers  of 
fascines,  2  layers  of  sand-bags,  and  b'  or  6'  of  earth.  During  the  siege 
three  were  exploded  by  13"  shells;  but  it  was  supposed  that  in  two  of 
these  cases  the  shells  burst  in  the  passage,  as  similar  magazines  resisted 
13"  shells  falling  on  the  roof;  in  the  third  case  the  magazine  was  first 
struck  fairly  on  the  roof  by  a  13"  shell,  which  laid  it  bare  to  the  sand- 
bags ;  the  corporal  of  sappers  in  charge,  being  intoxicated,  neglected  to 
repair  the  damage,  when  another  13"  shell  struck  in  the  same  place  and 
exploded  the  magazine. 

A  very  good  gabion  was  made,  by  the  English,  of  the  iron  hoops  of 
bales  of  hay,  casks,  &c.  They  were  3'  high  and  2'  in  diameter,  having 
11  stakes  of  sawed  wood.     The  iron  hoops  were  wattled  as  the  ordinary 


30  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

witheS;  and  were  bound  by  iron  straps  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
gabion.  These  were  much  employed  in  revetting  the  cheeks  of  embra- 
sures, thus  avoiding  the  use  of  raw  hides.  The  first  pair  of  gabions,  at 
the  throat,  should  not  be  of  iron,  since  it  was  found  that  shot  would  often 
tear  oflf  pieces  of  the  straps,  which  caused  bad  wounds. 

Gabions  were  also  made  of  split  hoops. 

The  fascines  were  bound  with  iron  straps,  twisted  by  pincers,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  withes.  The  dimensions  of  their  materials  varied 
much  in  size,  being  made  by  difi"erent  parties. 

Sand-bags  were  very  much  employed  in  revetting  batteries,  tra- 
verses, &c. 

Latrines  were  provided  at  the  extremities  of  parallels  and  boyaux,  and 
cleansed  with  lime  every  day. 

Water  tanks  and  reservoirs  were  provided  in  the  parallels,  and  filled 
every  morning  and  evening  by  means  of  pack-animals. 

During  the  siege  the  English  working  parties  and  guards  of  the 
trenches  generally  paraded  at  6^  P.M.,  and  moved  off  after  dark,  often 
suffering  severely  before  reaching  the  trenches.  The  guards  of  the 
trenches  went  on  duty  in  their  red  coats  and  forage  caps,  without  knap- 
sacks; working  parties  in  working  dress,  and  armed;  muskets  on  the 
reverse  of  the  trench.  Grenerally  double  sentinels  were  posted,  on  their 
bellies,  -about  50  yards  in  advance  of  the  trench. 

Materials,  guns,  ammunition,  &c.,  were  carried  up  at  night,  "over  the 
open." 

The  result  of  the  operations  of  this  long  and  eventful  siege  was  that 
on  the  8th  of  September,  1855,  the  French  had,  at  a  great  cost  of  life 
and  labor,  pushed  their  approaches  to  the  distance  of  32  paces  from  the 
counterscarp  of  the  Malakoff,  and  not  quite  so  near  the  other  works. 
The  English,  meanwhile,  had  scarcely  reached  within  225  yards  of  the 
ditch  of  the  Redan. 

On  that  day  the  assault  was  made  at  noon  upon  at  least  six  points. 

A  few  minutes  later  than  the  assault  upon  the  Malakoff,  the  English 
attacked  the  Redan.  The  Russians  being  now  upon  the  alert,  they  did 
not  pass  over  the  open  space  before  them  without  loss;  but  the  mass 
succeeded  in  crossing  the  ditch  and  gaining  the  salient  of  the  work. 
Finding  themselves  entirely  unsupported,  they  at  once  took  shelter  behind 
the  traverses,  whence  the  example  and  efforts  of  their  officers  did  not 
avail  to  draw  them,  in  order  to  occupy  the  work  closing  the  gorge. 
Having  in  vain  used  every  effort,  having  despatched  every  officer  of  his 
staff  to  the  rear  urging  that  supports  should  be  at  once  sent  up,  and 
seeing  that  the  Russians  were  now  beginning  to  assemble  in  force,  the  com- 
mander of  the  English  storming  party  reluctantly  determined  to  proceed 
himself  to  obtain  reinforcements.     Scarcely  had  he  reached  the  trenches, 


THE    CRIMEAN   WAR.  31 

and  at  last  obtained  authority  to  move  up  the  required  succor,  when,  upon 
turning  to  lead  them  forward,  he  saw  the  party  he  had  left  in  the  work 
rapidly  and  hopelessly  driven  out  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  No  further 
eflfort  was  made  to  carry  the  work.  It  would,  in  all  probability,  have 
failed,  and  would  only  have  caused  a  useless  sacrifice  of  men. 

The  failure  of  the  English  assault  may  be  attributed  partly  to  the  fact 
that  their  advanced  trenches  were  too  small  to  accommodate  the  requisite 
force  without  confusion,  in  part  to  their  not  being  pushed  sufficiently 
near  the  Redan,  but  chiefly  to  that  total  absence  of  conduct  and  skill  in 
the  arrangements  for  the  assault  which  left  the  storming  party  entirely 
without  support.  Had  it  been  followed  at  once  by  strong  reinforcements, 
it  is  almost  certain  that  the  English  would  have  retained  possession  of  the 
work. 

The  two  French  attacks  on  the  west  of  the  central  ravine  were  probably 
intended  only  as  feints :  at  all  events,  the  parties  engaged  were  soon  driven 
back  to  their  trenches  with  considerable  loss,  and  effected  nothing.  Their 
attempts  upon  the  Little  Redan,  and  the  works  connecting  it  with  the 
Malakoff,  met  with  even  less  success  than  the  English  assault.  The 
Russians  repulsed  the  French  with  great  loss,  meeting  with  the  bayonet 
the  more  adventurous  men  who  reached  the  parapet.  Thus,  in  five  points 
out  of  six,  the  defenders  were  fully  victorious,  but,  unfortunately  for  them, 
the  sixth  was  the  decisive  point. 

In  their  admirable  arrangements  for  the  attack  of  the  Malakoff,  the 
French  counted  on  two  things  for  success : — ^first,  they  had  ascertained  that 
the  Russians  were  in  the  habit  of  relieving  the  guard  of  the  Malakoff  at 
noon,  and  that  a  great  part  of  the  old  guard  marched  out  before  the  new 
one  arrived,  in  order  to  avoid  the  loss  which  would  arise  from  crowding 
the  work  with  men;  in  the  second  place,  it  was  determined  to  keep  up 
a  most  violent  vertical  fire  until  the  very  moment  of  the  assault,  thus 
driving  the  Russians  into  the  bomb-proofs,  and  enabling  the  storming 
party  to  enter  the  work  with  but  little  opposition.  The  hour  of  noon  was 
therefore  selected  for  the  assault,  and  the  strong  columns  intended  for  the 
work  were  at  an  early  hour  assembled  in  the  advanced  trenches,  all  in 
admirable  order,  and  furnished  with  precise  instructions. 

The  mortars  maintained  an  unremitting  fire  until  the  moment  appointed. 
The  very  instant  the  last  volley  was  discharged,  the  storming  party  of 
Zouaves  rushed  over  the  thirty  paces  before  them,  and  were  in  the  work 
before  the  astonished  Russians  knew  what  had  happened.  It  was  stated 
that  this  party  lost  but  eleven  men  in  entering  the  work.  Other  troops 
advanced  rapidly  to  the  support  of  the  storming  party,  a  bridge  was  formed 
by  rolling  up  five  ladders  with  planks  lashed  to  them,  a  communication 
was  at  once  commenced  between  the  advanced  trench  and  the  bridge, 
brigade  after  brigade  passed  over,  the  redoubt  was  at  once  occupied  by  the 


82  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

storming  party,  and  tlius  the  Malakoff,  and  witt  it  Sebastopol,  was  won. 
The  few  Russians  remaining  in  the  work  made  a  desperate  resistance. 
Many  gallant  attempts  were  made  by  Russian  columns  to  ascend  the 
steep  slope  in  reiar  and  regain  the  lost  work;  but  the  road  was  narrow, 
difficult,  and  obstructed,  the  position  strong,  and  the  French  in  force. 
All  their  furious  efforts  were  in  vain,  and  the  Malakoff  remained  in  the 
possession  of  those  who  had  so  gallantly  and  skilfully  won  it.  With 
regard  to  the  final  retreat  to  the  north  side,  it  can  only  be  said  that  a  per- 
sonal examination  of  the  locality  merely  confirms  its  necessity,  and  the 
impression  so  generally  entertained  that  it  was  the  finest  operation  of  the 
war:  so  admirably  was  it  carried  out  that  not  a  straggler  remained  behind; 
a  few  men  so  severely  wounded  as  to  be  unfit  for  rough  and  hurried  trans- 
portation were  the  sole  ghastly  human  trophies  that  remained  to  the  allies. 

The  retreat,  being  a  more  difficult  operation  than  the  assault,  may  be 
worthy  of  higher  admiration;  but  the  Russian  retreat  to  the  north  side 
and  the  French  assault  upon  the  Malakoff  must  each  be  regarded  as  a 
masterpiece  of  its  kind,  deserving  the  closest  study.  It  is  difficult  to 
imagine  what  point  in  either  can  be  criticized;  for  both  evinced  con- 
summate skill,  discipline,  coolness,  and  courage.  With  regard  to  the 
artillery,  I  would  merely  remark  that  the  Russian  guns  were  not  of 
unusual  calibre,  consisting  chiefly  of  24,  32,  and  42  pounders,  and  that 
the  termination  of  the  siege  was  mainly  due  to  the  extensive  use  of 
mortars  finally  resorted  to  by  the  allies.  If  they  had  been  employed  in 
the  beginning  as  the  main  reliance,  the  siege  would  have  been  of  shorter 
duration. 

The  causes  of  the  unusual  duration  of  this  siege  naturally  resolve  them- 
selves into  three  classes  :  the  skilful  disposition  of  the  Russians,  the  faults 
of  the  allies,  and  natural  causes  beyond  the  control  of  either  party. 
Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  natural  strength  of  the  position 
and  the  severity  of  the  winter.  In  the  first  class,  there  may  be  alluded 
to : — the  skill  with  which  the  Russian  eugineers  availed  themselves  of  the 
nature  of  the  ground;  the  moral  courage  which  induced  them  to  under- 
take the  defence  of  an  open  town  with  a  weak  garrison;  the  constant  use 
they  made  of  sorties,  among  which  may  properly  be  classed  the  battles 
of  Balaklava,  Inkermann,  and  the  Tchernaya;  the  ready  ingenuity  with 
which  they  availed  themselves  of  the  resources  derived  from  the  fleet ; 
the  fine  practice  of  their  artillery;  their  just  appreciation  of  the  true  use 
of  field  works,  and  the  admirable  courage  they  always  evinced  in  standing 
to  their  works  to  repel  assaults  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet;  the  employ- 
ment of  rifle-pits  on  an  extensive  scale;  finally,  the  constant  reinforce- 
ments which  they  soon  commenced  receiving,  and  which  enabled  them  to 
fill  the  gaps  made  in  their  ranks  by  disease  and  the  projectiles  of  the  allies. 

The  evidences  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  allies,  as  well  as  the  apparent 


THE   CRIMEAN  WAR.  33 

faults  on  all  sides,  having  been  already  alluded  to,  it  is  believed  that  the 
means  have  been  famished  to  enable  any  one  to  draw  his  own  conclusions 
as  to  the  history  of  this  memorable  passage  of  arms. 

At  different  times  .during  the  siege  ai  vast  amount  of  labor  was  bestowed 
upon  field  works  in  front  of  Kamiesch  and  Balaklava,  near  the  Inker- 
mann,  on  the  northern  and  eastern  borders  of  the  plateau,  and  along  the 
Tchernaya:  these  works  varied  much  in  strength  and  character,  some- 
times consisting  of  continuous  lines,  again  of  detached  redoubts. 

The  redoubts  generally  had  ditches  about  10'  wide  and  6'  deep.  In 
many  cases  these  works  were  only  undertaken  when  a  narrow  escape  from 
some  imminent  danger  had  demonstrated  their  necessity. 

The  line  in  front  of  Kamiesch  consisted  of  eight  pentagonal  redoubts, 
connected  by  an  infantry  parapet;  it  ran  from  Strelitzka  bay  nearly  south  to 
the  sea,  passing  at  a  Iktle  more  than  a  mile  from  the  harbor  of  Kamiesch : 
it  was  never  completely  finished. 

The  position  of  the  Russians,  after  the  evacuation  of  the  south  side, 
was  one  of  exceeding  strength :  their  establishments  were  covered  by  Fort 
Sivernaia,  (a  permanent  work,)  and  long  lines  of  strong  earthen  batteries, 
which  would  have  required  a  siege  to  reduce  them. 

The  steep  declivity  of  Mackenzie's  heights,  accessible  at  but  a  few 
points,  all  of  which  were  strongly  guarded,  rendered  the  approach  from 
the  south  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty.  It  would  appear  that  the  allies 
were  wise  in  refusing  to  attempt  to  force  the  passage,  unless  the  effort  had 
been  made  immediately  after  the  fall  of  the  Malakoff,  before  the  Russians 
recovered  from  the  shock.  • 

Efforts  were  made  to  turn  the  extreme  Russian  left  by  the  valley  of 
Baidar,  but  they  only  served  to  ascertain  the  hopelessness  of  the  under- 
taking. 

The  detached  operations  against  Kinburn,  Eupatoria,  Kertch,  the  Sea  of 
Azoff,  &c.,  cannot  be  regarded  as  having  produced  any  effect  upon  the  gene- 
ral result  of  the  war  :  they  served  chiefly  to  weaken  the  main  body  of  the 
allies,  to  annoy  and  exasperate  the  Russians,  to  occupy  the  attention  of 
some  of  their  irregular  troops,  and  to  destroy  more  private  than  public 
property. 

The  most  accurate  topographical  map  of  the  ground  around  Sebastopol, 
that  I  have  seen,  is  one  published  at  the  hydrographic  o^ce  of  the  Admi- 
ralty, February  2,  1856,  and  entitled,  "  Sebastopol :  shpwing  the  Russian 
defence  works  and  the  approaches  of  the  allied  armies;  by  Lieutenant 
George  R.  Wilkinson,  R.N.,  under  the  direction  of  Captain  T.  Spratt, 
R.  N.  C.  B.,  September  1,  1855." 

The  permanent  defences  of  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol  against  an  attack 
by  water,  although  inferior  in  material  and  the  details  of  construction  to 
our  own  most  recent  works,  proved  fully  equal  to  the  pui'pose  for  which 


84  THE   ARMIES   OF    EUROPE. 

they  were  intended.  Indeed,  the  occurrences  on  the  Pacific,  the  Baltic, 
and  the  Black  Sea,  all  seem  to  establish,  beyond  controversy,  the  sound- 
ness of  the  view  so  long  entertained  by  all  intelligent  military  meuj  that 
well-constructed  fortifications  must  always  prove  more  than  a  match  for 
the  strongest  fleets. 

It  is  believed  that  a  calm  consideration  of  the  events  so  hastily  and 
imperfectly  narrated  in  the  preceding  pages  must  lead  all  unprejudiced 
persons  among  our  countrymen  to  a  firm  conviction  on  two  vital  points : 

1st.  That  our  system  of  permanent  coast 'defences  is  a  wise -and  proper 
one,  which  ought  to  be  completed  and  armed  with  the  least  possible 
delay. 

2d.  That  mere  individual  courage  cannot  suffice  to  overcome  the  forces 
that  would  be  brought  against  us  were  we  involved  in  a  European  war, 
but  that  it  must  be  rendered  manageable  by  discipline,  and  directed  by 
that  consummate  and  mechanical  military  skill  which  can  only  be  acquired 
by  a  course  of  education  instituted  for  the  special  purpose,  and  by  long 
habit. 

In  the  day  of  sailing-vessels  the  successful  siege  of  Sebastopol  would 
have  been  impossible.  It  is  evident  that  the  Russians  did  not  appreciate 
the  advantages  afforded  by  steamers,  and  were  unprepared  to  sustain  a  siege. 

This  same  power  of  steam  would  enable  European  nations  to  disembark 
upon  our  shores  even  a  larger  force  than  that  which  finally  encamped 
around  Sebastopol.  To  resist  such  an  attack,  should  it  ever  be  made,  our 
cities  and  harbors  must  be  fortified,  and  those  fortifications  must  be  pro- 
vided with  guns,  ammunition,  and  instructed  artillerists.  To  repel  the 
advance  of  such  an  army  into  the  interior,  it  is  not  enough  to  trust  to 
the  number  of  brave  but  undisciplined  men  that  we  can  bring  to  bear 
against  it. 

An  invading  army  of  15,000  or  20,000  men  could  easily  be  crushed  by 
the  unremitting  attacks  of  superior  numbers ;  but  when  it  comes  to  the 
case  of  more  than  100,000  disciplined  veterans,  the  very  multitude 
brought  to  bear  against  them  works  its  own  destruction ;  because,  if  with- 
out discipline  and  instruction,  they  cannot  be  handled,  and  are  in  their 
own  way.     We  cannot  afford  a  Moscow  campaign. 

Our  regular  army  never  can  be,  and,  perhaps,  never  ought  to  be,  large 
enough  to  provide  for  all  the  contingencies  that  may  arise ;  but  it  should 
be  as  large  as  its  .ordinary  avocations  in  the  defence  of  the  frontier  will 
justify ;  the  number  of  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  should  be 
unusually  large,  to  provide  for  a  sudden  increase ;  and  the  greatest  pos- 
sible care  should  be  bestowed  upon  the  instruction  of  the  special  arms,  of 
the  artillery  and  engineer  troops. 

The  militia  and  volunteer  system  should  be  placed  upon  some  tangible 
and  effective  basis,  instructors  furnished  them  from  the  regular  army. 


THE   CRIMEAN  WAR.  35 

and  all  possible  means  taken  to  spread  sound  military  information  among 
them. 

In  the  vicinity  of  our  sea-coast  fortifications  it  would  be  well  to  provide 
a  sufficient  number  of  volunteer  companies  with  the  means  of  instruction 
in  heavy  artillery;  detailing  officers  of  the  regular  artillery  as  instructors, 
who  should  at  the  same  time  be  in  charge  of,  and  responsible  for,  the  guns 
and  material. 

In  time  of  war,  or  when  war  is  imminent,  local  companies  of  regular 
artillery  might  easily  be  enlisted  for  short  terms  of  service,  or  for  the  war, 
in  the  sea-coast  towns.  The  same  thing  might  advantageously  be  carried 
into  effect  on  a  small  scale,  in  time  of  peace. 


36  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 


EUROPEAN  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 


THE  RUSSIAN  JeNGINEER  TROOPS, 

As  has  been  stated  previously,  are  organized  in  battalions  of  four 
companies  eacb,  a  battalion  being  attached  to  each  army  corps.  Each 
company  consists  of  1  first  captain,  1  second  captain,  1  lieutenant,  1 
second  lieutenant,  1  ensign,  20  sergeants,  6  musicians,  230  corporals  and 
privates.  There  are  three  classes  of  .privates,  with  different  rates  of  pay. 
No  extra  pay  is  allowed  them  for  any  kind  of  work. 

Forty  men  in  each  company  carry  a  rifled  carbine,  the  rest  have  the 
ordinary  infantry  musket;  all  carry  tools  of  some  kind.  The  general 
equipment,  drill,  &c.,  is  as  for  the  infantry.  The  drivers  are  not  detailed 
from  the  companies,  but  are  a  distinct  set  of  men. 

The  officers  of  the  sappers  are  distinct  from  those  of  the  coi'ps  of  en- 
gineers, and  need  not  have  passed  through  the  engineer,  school,  but  may 
enter  at  once  from  any  of  the  military  schools. 

The  engineer  troops  havfe  charge  of  the  bridge  train.  Their  general 
duties  are  as  in  most  other  services,  including  the  repairs  of  roads,  &c. 

The  use  of  armor  in  the  trenches  has  been  abandoned.  The  tools, 
pontons,  wagons,  &c.,  are  made  afe  the  engineer  arsenals  of  construction. 
In  a  siege,  all  the  works,  including  the  batteries,  are  made  by  the  sappers. 

COMPANY  AND  BATTALION  SCHOOLS. 

These  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  junior  field  officer  of  the  bat- 
talion ;  the  method  of  mutual  instruction  is  pursue'd,  and  text-books  are 
provided. 

In  each  company  school  the  following  branches  are  taught :  1,  reading; 
2,  writing;  3,  religion,  i.e.  the  ten  commandments,  the  creed,  and  the 
principal  prayers;  4,  arithmetic,  i.e.  the  four  rules  for  single  and  de- 
nominate numbers ;  6,  reading  extracts  from  the  School  of  the  Recruit, 
with  questions  and  answers. 

In  the  lower  class  of  each  battalion  school  the  following  subjects  are 
taught :  1,  in  religion,  the  catechism  and  short  extracts  from  the  Scriptures ; 
2,  the  chief  rules  of  grammar  and  parsing;  3,  in  arithmetic,  the  repetition 


EUROPEAN  ENGINEER   TROOPS. 


of  the  four  ground  rules,  fractions,  proportion,  raising  to  the  second 
power,  and  extracting  the  square  ropt;  4,  in  geometry,  the  drawing, 
nomenclature,  and  properties  of  figures;  5,  writing. 

In  the  higher  class  of  the  battalion  school  the  course  is  as  follows :  1, 
in  the  Russian  language,  the  rest  of  the  grammar,  and  writing  from  dic- 
tation ;  2,  in  arithmetic,  simple,  inverse,  and  double  rule  of  three,  with  its 
application  to  examples,  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root;  3,  algebra,  as 
far  as  Simple  equations ;  4,  geometry,  with '  the  calculation  of  plane  sur- 
faces; 5,  writing;  6,  the  drawing  of  the  different  objects  relating  to  the 
duties  oF  sappers,  miners,  and  pontoniers;  7,  in  summer,  the  practical 
solution  of  simple  geometrical  problems  by  means  of  cords  and  stakes, 
execution  of  field  works,  saps,  mines,  &c.,  with  the  names  of  their  differ- 
ent parts. 


MILITARY  BRIDGES. 

The  Birago  equipage  has  been  partially  introduced, 
especially  the  trestles,  but  the  Russian  engineers  seemed 
to  prefer  their  own  system  of  canvas  pontons. 

I  was  informed  that  in  the  Hungarian  campaign  the  ad- 
vantage was  altogether  on  the  side  of  the  canvas  pontons, 
and  that,  as  a  general  thing,  their  bridge  was  thrown 
and  the  troops  crossing  before  the  Austrian  Birago 
wagons  could  fairly  come  into  position :  it  was  also 
stated  that  when  the  roads  were  bad  the  Austrian  train 
required  ten  horses  for  each  wagon. 

The  canvas  pontons  consist  of  two  wooden  side  frames, 
connected  by  movable  transoms,  with  a  painted  canvas 
cover  stretched  over  the  bottom,  ends,  and  sides. 

The  annexed  figure  gives  the  shape  and  dimensions 
of  one  of  the  side  frames,  which  are  made  of  about  4" 
scantling.  The  bottom  transoms  have,  tenons  at  each 
end,  which  fit  into  mortises  in  the  bottom  sills  of  the 
side  frames ;  the  two  top  transoms  are  laid  on  the  top 
pieces  of  the  side  frames  about  2!  from  the  ends,  and  are 
lashed  to  them.  The  boat  is  5'  4"  wide  from  out  to 
out. 

The  canvas  cover  is  painted  black  on  both  sides ;  it  is 
10'  8"  wide,  30'  long  in  the  m'iddle,  23'  3"  long  along 
the  edges.  This  cover  is  brought  over  the  ends  of  the 
frame  and  lashed  to  the  top  transoms;  it  is  secured 
along  the  sides  to  the  top  string-pieces  of  the  side  frames 
by  small'  nails  passing  through  eyelet-holes  along  the 
edges  of  the  cloth. 


L.xr. 


"^ 


38  THE  ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

A  plank  is  laid  along  the  bottom  for  the  pontoniers  to  stand  6n.  The 
cables  are  attached  to  the  top  transoms.  There  are  four  balks  for  each 
boat,  each  balk  being  23'  4"  long,  5"  'deep,  4"  wide ;  the  side  "rails  are 
2V  long,  and  of  3"  scantling;  four  chesses  are  12'  2"  long,  1.5"  thick, 
and  18.6"  wide,  the  rest  being  of  the  same  length  and  thickness,  but  only 
9.3"  wide.  The  balks  of  adjacent  bays  are  connected  by  iron  bolts  and 
keys.  There  are  special  supports  for  the  hand-ropes.  The  Birago  trestle 
and  abutments  are  used  with  this  train.  The  wagon  is  very  simple;  it 
has  four  wheels,  a  flat  open  bottom,  with  a  stanchion  about  3'  high  at 
each  angle.  In  loading,  the  four  broad  chesses  are  laid  on  edge  against 
the  stanchions,  two  on  each  side,  thus  forming  the  sides  of  the  wagon ; 
the  narrow  chesses  are  laid  on  the  bottom,  then  the  balks,  side  rails, 
ponton-frames,  oars,  &c.,  the  anchor  and  cable  on  top  of  all.  The  canvas 
cover  is  rolled  on  a  boat-hook  and  hung  to  the  stanchions  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  wagon. 

To  pass  a  siege  train  over  this  bridge,  the  boats  are  placed  8'  apart, 
from  centre  to  centre,  and  six  balks  are  used  instead  of  four.  In  other 
cases  the  distance  between  the  centres  of  the  supports  varies  from  11'  8" 
to  16'  7i",  according  to  the  method  of  construction  and  the  load  to  be 
crossed  over. 

I  saw  a  bridge  of  fifteen  bays  thrown  over  a  lake,  by  cadets,  in  forty-five 
minutes.  In  this  time  the  wagons  were  unloaded,  the  boats  put  together, 
&c. ;  two  of  the  bays  were  on  Birago  trestles,  and  two  on  Birago  pontons. 

The  canvas  ponton,  with  its  cover,  cctoplete,  weighs  720  pounds. 

Floatation  of  each  ponton,  13,428  pounds. 

Weight  of  flooring,  &c.,  of  one  bay,  1,476  pounds. 

Other  materials  packed  on  each  wagon  vary  from  144  to  378  pounds.    • 

•Total  load  of  each  wagon,  from  2,340  to  2,574  pounds. 

Weight  of  empty  wagon,  1,206  pounds. 

The  weights  and  dimensions  given  above  are  derived  from  the  Russian 
Aide-M4moire  of  the  Engineers,  pp.  143  to  145. 

LEATHER  PONTONS  OF  THE  MOUNTED  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

These  are  made  of  varnished  leather,  stretched  over  a  wooden  frame. 
The  boats,  or  pontons,  are  20'  long;  greatest  width,  5'  7";  depth,  3'; 
weight,  972  pounds ;  floatation,  when  sunk  to  the  depth  of  2'  8",  5,760 
pounds. 

For  each  boat  there  are  8  balks,  each  18'  long  and  4"  square,  and 
weighing  72  pounds. 

For  each  bay  there  are  12  chesses,  each  12'  long,  18i"  wide,  2"  thick, 
and  weighing  101  pounds. 

Each  ponton  is  carried  on  a  wagon,  together  with  8  balks  and  some 
other  materials. 


EUROPEAN  ENGINEER  TROOPS.  39 

On  other  wagons  are  carried  the  chesses  for  two  bays  and  the  remainder 
of  the  material. 


The  weights  of  these  wagons  and  their  loads  are  as  follows : 

Boat-wagon,  empty 2,178  pound: 

The  boat 972       " 

8  balks 576      " 

Other  materials 640       " 


Total 4,266      " 


Chess-wagon,  empty 2,196  pounds. 

24  chesses , 2,424       ^» 

Other  materials 270       " 


Total 4,890 


Each  wagon  is  drawn  by  6  horses. 

Each  leather  boat  will  transport  25  men,  with  their  arms  and  accoutre- 
ments. 

A  raft  formed  of  two  boats  will  transport  one  gun,  or  6  horses.' 

The  foregoing  account  of  this  bridge  is  also  derived  from  the  Eussian 
Aide-M^ftioire,  (edition  of  1848,)  pp.  153  and  154. 

I  had  no  opportunity  of  examining  a  train  of  this  kind. 

Raft  bridges  are  much  employed  and  admirably  handled  by  the  Russians. 
There  is  a  very  fine  one,  with  a  draw,  over  the  Vistula,  at  Modlin. 

FIELD  WORKS. 

The  normal  dimensions  of  the  different  parts  are  as  follows: 

Ditchj  not  less  than  10 J'  wide  at  top;  from  6'  to  9'  deep;  base  of 
scarp  and  counterscarp,  from  J  to  f  of  the  depth. 

Parapet,  from  1'  to  8'  high;  thickness  against  infantry,  4';  against 
artillery,  ffom  9'  to  14' ;  interior  slope,  J ;  exterior  slope,  f  or  f ,  accord-- 
ing  to  the  soil. 

Banquette,  3'  to  4^'  wide,  4'  4"  below  the  interior  crest. 

Berm,  W  to  3'  wide. 

Embrasures,  V  9"  wide  at  the  throat ;  exterior  opening  depends  upon, 
the  thickness  of  the  parapet  and  the  desired  field  of  fire ;  sole,  3'  to 
3'  3"  above  the  platform.  •     . 

3Ierhns,  T  to  8'  high,  VJ^'  to  21'  from  axis  to  axis  of  the  embrasures. 

Barbettes,  3'  to  3'  3"  below  the  interior  crest,  17J'  to  24'  deep,  14'' 
wide. 

Chin  and  howitzer  platforms,  9'  wide,  17  J'  to  21'  long. 

Mortar  platformy  T  wide,  V  to  9'  long. 


40  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

A  gun  or  howitzer  platform  consists  of:  1st,  a  hurter,  not  less  than  9' 
long  X  6"  gquare;  it  is  bisected  at  right  angles  by  the  directrix;  2d,  3 
or  6  sleepers,  (according  to  the  soil,)  not  less  than  6"  square,  and  as  long 
as  the  platform;  the  outside  sleepers  are  5 2'  apart  from  centre  tp  centre, 
and  are  parallel  to  each  other;  3d,  flooring  planks  not  less  than  2" 
thick. 

A  mortar  platform  consists  of:  1st,  3  sleepers  8"  square  and  as  long 
as  the  platform ;  2dj  flooring  timbers  7'  long  and  8"  thick. 

ARRANGEMENT   OP   THE   WORKING   PARTY   ON   A   FIELD   WORK. 

From  four  to  five  men. are  assigned  every  six  running  feet  of  the  ditch, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  profile.  In  easy  soil  each  of  these 
parties  has  one  pick  or  mattock,  four  shovels,  and  one  earth-rammer;  in 
difficult  soil  there  should  be  two-thirds  shovels  and  one-third  picks;  in 
very  difficult  soil,  one-half  shovels  and  one-half  picks. 

The  workmen  are  placed  in  four  ranks,  which  are  6'  apart;  the  first 
rank  in  the  ditch,  near  the  counterscarp;  the  second  at  the  middle  of  the 
ditch,  opposite  the  intervals  of  the  first  rank;  the  third  on  the  berm; 
the  fourth  on  the  parapet. 

The  first  rank  carry  their  excavation  to'  the  depth  of  3',  from  the 
counterscarp  to  the  middle  of  the  ditch,  and  throw  the  earth  on  the 
berm ;  the  second  rank  work  from  the  middle  of  the  ditch  towards  the 
scarp,  throwing  the  earth  on  the  berm  and  parapet;  the  third  rank  throw 
the  loose  earth  from  the  berm  towards  the  interior  slope ;  the  fourth-  rank 
level  thd  earth  on  the  parapet,  ram  it,  form  the  slopes,  &c.  If  the  ditch 
is  more  than  10^'  wide,  the  first  rank  throw  their  earth  towards  the  scarp, 
whence  the  second  rank  throw  it  on  the  berm.  The  scarp  and  counter- 
scarp are  at  first  cut  down  in  steps,  being  afterwards  trimmed  oflf  to  the 
proper  slopes. 

Any  superfluous  earth  is  formed  into  a  glacis. 

In  a  'ditch  not  more  than  4'  deep,  in  good  soil,  two  men  can  in  ten 
hours  excavate  and  shovel  off  343  cubic  feet;  in  a  ditch  frofh  4'  to  5 2^' 
deep,  one  additional  man  is  required  to  do  the  same  work ;  in  a  ditch 
more  than  5^^'  deep,  four  men,  two  of  whom  have  barrows  or  baskets,  are 
required  to  do  the  same  work.  The  interior  slope  is  always  revetted  with 
fascines  or  hurdles;  in  default  of  these,  with  sods.  The  exterior  slope 
is  revetted  with  fascines  or  hurdles  only  when  the  parapet  is  of  sand. 

When  the  work  is  to-stand  for  some  time,  the  exterior  slope  and  the 
counterscarp  may  be  revetted  with  sods. 

Parties  of  seven  sappers  each  are  detailed  to  revet  the  interior  slope ; 
the  three  oldest  soldiers  arrange  the  slope,  the  other  four  bring  up  the 
materials.  Each  party  should  revet  24  running  feet,  and  is  provided 
witl^  one  iron  hammer,  one  bill-hook,  and  1  handsaw. 


EUROPEAN   ENGINEER   TROOPS.  41 


SECONDARY   MEANS   OP   DEFENCE. 

Inundations  stould  not  be  less  than  5'  deep. 

Chevaux-de-fnse. — Body  of  square  timber,  9'  long;  the  lances. project 
5',  are  \\"  in  diameter,  and  9i"  apart. 

Palisades. — Of  round  timber,  9^'  to  10 i'  long,  8''  in  diameter;  point, 
1'  lon^ ;  butts  charred.  They  are  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  scarp  or  coun- 
terscarp, or  in  the  middle  of  the  ditch.  "The  trench  to  receive  them  is 
1\'  wide  and  2j'  deep.     The  palisades  are  from  2"  to  3''  apart. 

Stockades  are  double  palisades,  employed  against  light  artillery. 

The  military  pits  are  from  5'  to  6'  deep,  upper  diameter  6',  lower  dia- 
meter 1^'j  the  stake  from  4"  to  5"  in  diameter,  and  projects  4^'  above 
the' bottom  of  the  pit. 

Fraises,  entanglements,  abatis,  caltrops,  &c.,  are  also  employed. 

SIEGE  MATERIALS,  ETC. 

The  usual  mathematical  and  surveying  instruments  are  provided.  The 
tools  are  generally  inferior  in  quality. 

Common  fascine. — 6'  or  12'  long,  2'  in  circumference;  withes  from  1' 
to  2'  apart. 

Batter?/  fascine. — 18'  to  21'  long,  1'  in  diameter;  withes  10" to  12"  apart. 

Sap  fagot. — 2  J'  long,  10"  in  diameter;  central  stake  projects  6". 

The  trestles  of  the  fascine  cradles  are  from  2 2'  to  3'  apart;  the  stakes 
of  which  they  are  made  are  5'  to  6'. long,  diameter  3"  to  4"  at  the  butt; 
points  enter  the  ground  3'  apart,  and  cross  3'  abov^  the  ground. 

The  brush  for  fascines  is  not  more  than  1"  in  diameter.  A  fascine 
party  consists  of  six  men  :  two  for  preparing  the  brush,  one  to  prepare 
the  withes,  two  to  lay  and  choke  the  brush,  one  to  remove  the  fascine 
when  completed.  Each  party  is  provided  with  two  bill-hooks,  one 
hatchet,  one  measuring-rod,  one  cord  to  measure  the  circumference,  and 
one  choker. 

Gallon. — The  sap  gabion  is  30"  high,  24"  in  diameter,  and  has  9 
stakes;  each  stake  3^'  long,  and  from  1^"  to  2"  in  diameter. 

Battery  gallon. — 4'  high,  3'  in  diameter,  13  stakes.  In  all  gabions  the 
stakes  should  be  8'  apart. 

A  gabion  party  consists  of  three  men,  and  is  provided  with  one 
measuring-rod,  two  bill-hooks,  and  one  hatchet. 

Sap  roller.— 1^'  long,  4'  in  diameter,  stuflfed  with  wool  or  fascines,  and 
closed  at  both  ends  by  wattling.     It  has  17  stakes. 

The  brush  being  cut  for  them,  and  it  being  only  required  to  trim  off 
the  leaves  and  twigs  and  to  wattle,  a  party  of  three  men  can  in  four  hours 
finish  three  sap  gabions,  two- battery  gabions,  or  one-third  of  a  sap  roller. 

Hurdles  are  from  4'  to  9'  long;  stakes,  from  4'  to  7'  long,  2"  in  dia- 


42  THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

meter,  and  1'  apart.     A  party  of  tliree  men  can  make  53  square  feet  of 
hurdles  in  four  hours,  the  brush  being  abeady  cut. 

Sand-hags.— 2'  long,  8"  to  9"  wide. 

Sods,—lW'  long,  12"  broad,  from  5"  to  6"  thick. 

Average  weight  of  different  sap  materials. 

Common  fascine,  6J'  long,  8^''  diameter #..        .  31J 

Battery  fascine,  20Mong,  V  diameter..... 288 

Sap  fagot 17 

Sap  gabion 43  to  54 

Sap  roller,  empty 324 

Sap  roller,  stuffed  with  fascines 1,080  to  1,296 

Sand-bag,  filled 36  to  40 

SIEGE  OPERATIONS. 

Simple  trench. — In  easy  soil,  that  can  be  worked  by  the  shovel  alone, 
the  men  are  placed  4'  apart ;  when  the  pick  is  required,  3'  apart ;  in  very 
difficult  soil,  2'  apart.  The  communications  leading  to  the  first  parallel 
have  the  following  profile :  trench,  3'  deep  at  the  berm,  8'  to  9'  wide  at 
bottom;  parapet,  4'  high  and  9'  thick  at  base.  This  should  be  com- 
pleted the  first  night.  Next  day  the  first  parallel  receives  the  following 
dimensions  :  parapet,  4'  high,  16'  thick  at  base ;  trench,  9'  wide  at  bottom 
in  the  clear,  3'  deep  in  front;  two  steps,  revetted  with  fascines,  against 
the  berm  slope,  and  one  broad  step  on  the  reverse  slope. 

As  regards  their  appearance,  when  completed,  saps  are  single,  double, 
or  covered  ;  with  respect  to  the  mode  of  execution,  they  are  flying  or  slow. 

The  single  sap  affords  cover  from  one  direction  only ;  the  double  sap, 
on  both  sides ;  the  covered  sap,  on  both  sides  and  above ;  the  latter  is 
employed  fo  give  protection  against  a  ricochet  fire,  or  when  descending  a 
slope,  or  when  following  along  the  foot  of  a  hill. 

In  the  flying  sap  the  gabions  are  all  placed  and  filled  simultaneously ; 
in  the  slow  sap  the  gabions  are  placed  and  filled  one  at  a  time. 

,For  each  head  of  the  slow  sap  24  sappers  are  detailed  and  divided  into 
4  reliefs ;  there  is  one  non-commissioned  officer  with  each  relief,  and  1 
officer  for  every  2  reliefs. 

For  each  head  of  sap  the  following  tools  are  necessary :  2  sap  hooks,  9' 
long,  as  in  annexed  sketch  : 


lEJ- 


EUROPEAN.ENGINEER    TROOPS. 


43 


1  square;  1  arm  1'  long,  the  other  18",  as  a  measure  for  the  1st  sapper; 
3  measures  for  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  sappers,  respectively,  2',  2^',  and  3' 
long;  4  hand-axes,  to  cut  turf  and  roots;  4  picks,  or  mattocks,  according 
to  the  soil ;  6  shovels ;  2  axes ;  1  tracing-cord ;  2  sap  forks,  each  5'  long, 
as  shown  by  the  annexed  sketch : 


1  seven-foot  measure ;  2  handspikes,  T  long,  6"  square ;  1  roller,  4'  long, 
18"  in  circumference ;  1  block,  2'  long,  6"  square,  as  a  fulcrum  for  the 
handspikes ;  1  curved  wooden  mallet,  of  the  shape  and  dimensions  shown 
in  the  annexed  figure,  for  driving  down  the  crowning  fascines,  &c. : 

8"    • 


Kr 


4'  6' 


For  each  head  of  sap  the  following  materials  are  required:  1  sap 
roller;  sap  gabions;  sap  fagots;  fascines;  stakes,  2 J' long,  for  fastening 
the  fascines ;  sand-bags. 

Each  relief  is  relieved  after  filling  18  gabions,  which  should  be  accom- 
plished in  3  hours. 

The  first  sapper  fills  3  gabions,  and  then  becomes  No.  6 ;  No.  2  becomes 
No.  1,  &c.  The  end  of  the  sap  roller  is  on  the  alignment  of  the  exterior 
surface  of  the  gabionade.  The  joint  between  the  sap  roller  and  the 
gabion  in  the  course  of  being  filled  is  not  covered ;  the  next  12  joints 
are  each  covered  by  2  sand-bags  on  end;  after  that  with  sap  fagots. 

Temporary  crowning  fascines  are  not  habitually  used. 

Execution  of  the  single  sap. — The  1st 'sapper  leaves  a  berm  of  1';  his 
form  is  18"  deep,  1'  wide  at  bottom;  base  of  berm  slope  1';  he  works  on 
his  knees.  The  2d  sapper  follows  No.  1  at  the  distance  of  3  gabions;  his 
form  is  2.'  deep,  2'  wide  at  bottom,  berm  slope  |;  he  throws  his  earth 
over  the  gabionade,  and  works  on  his  knees.  The  3d  and  4th  sappers 
crown  the  gabions  opposite  their  forms  with  one  layer  of  2  fascines,  and 
then  complete  their  respective  forms,  preserving  the  berm  slope  of  | ; 
the  form  of  No.  3  is  ^^'  deep  by  2V  wide  at  bottom ;  that  of  No.  4  is  3' 
deep  and  3'  wide  at  bottom.  Each  sapper  follows  at  3  gabions  behind  the 
one  in  front  of  him.    In  the  mean  time,  Nos.  5  and  6  pass  up  the  materials, 


t 
44  THE    ARMIES    OF-EUROPE. 

place  and  secure  with  pickets  the  2d  layer  of  fascines,  remove  the  sand- 
bags from  the  joints,  and  replace  them  by  sap  fagots. 

Nos.  2  and  3  manoeuvre  the  sap.  roller. 

Boyaux  made  by  the  single  sap  are  6'  wide  at  bottom. 

Double  sajp. — This  is  12'  wide  between  the  two  rows  of  gabions.  Its 
trench,  when  completed,  is  10'  wide  at  top,  6'  at  the  bottom.  The  head 
is  covered  by  two  ordinary  sap  rollers,  not  united  in  any  way,  the  joint 
being  closed  by  sand-bags,  or  a  wool-bag.  If  it  is  necessary  to  throw  the 
sap  rollers  farther  out  than  usual,  the  opening  left  between  them  may  be 
covered  by  a  short  sap  roller. 

The  covered  sap. — In  this,  blindage  frames  are  used,  each  consisting 
of  two  stanchions  10^'  long  X  7"  square,  and  of  two  cross  pieces,  the 
upper  of  which  is  10"  X  7",  the  lower  7"  X  5"-  The  frame  is  4'  wide 
from  out  to  out,  and  7¥  high  from  out  to  out  of  the  cross  pieces.  The 
stanchions  project  equally  beyond  both  cross  pieces,  and  have  points* 
9"  long.  The  frames  rest  against  the  berm  slope,  having  its  inclination. 
Two  cross  beams,  each  16'  long  and  10"  X  7",  rest  on  each  top  cross 
piece.  Five  longitudinal  beams  of  a  similar  section  are  laid  on  the  cross 
beams;  on  top  of  these  two  layers  of  fascines,  and  on  top  of  them  3'  of 
earth.  The  trench  thus  formed  is  7'  high  in  the  clear  and  6'  wide  at 
bottom.  In  pushing  the  sap  from  the  crowning  of  the  breach,  the  first 
sapper  makes  his  form  3'  deep  and  2'  wide  at  bottom ;  each  of  the  other 
sappers  widens  and  deepens  it  1'. 

MINES. 

Frames  of  grand  galleries  are  6'  high  and  3'  wide  in  the  clear. 

Frames  of  common  galleries  are  4  J'  high  and  3'  wide  in  the  clear. 

Frames  of  branches  are  2V  high  and  2'  wide  in  the  clear. 

All  parts  of  the  frames  are  5"  wide;  the  caps  are  from  5"  to  9"  deep, 
the  sills  from  3"  to  5"  deep. 

For  branches,  the  width  and  depth  are  diminished  1". 

The  frames  of  Dutch  galleries  are  of  2"  plank,  and  from  6"  to  9"  wide. 

Each  party  of  miners  consists  of  three  non-commissioned  officers  and 
eighteen  men,  divided  into  three  reliefs,  each  relief  working  six  hours. 
In  ordinary  soil,  where  no  unusual  obstacle  is  encountered,  each  relief 
should  drive  from  3'  to  4'  in  six  hours. 

In  defending  any  position  by  field  works,  the  system  pursued  was  to 
occupy  the  flanks  and  other  important  points  of  any  given  line  by 
redoubts,  lunettes  closed  or  palisaded  at  the  gorge,  &c.,  afterwards  con- 
necting them  by  continuous  lines  if  time  was  afforded,  and  the  locality 
rendered  it  advisable.  When  circumstances  were  favorable,  the  command 
Df  the  works  was  usually  from  9'  to  12',  or  even  more ;  the  parapets  16' 
to  20'  thick.     In  the  ditches  of  the  works,  which  were  leisurely  con- 


EUROPEAN  ENGINEER   TROOPS.  45 

structed,  palisades,  fraizes,  caponi^res,  block-houses,  blinded  batteries,  &c., 
were  freely  and  judiciously  employed.  In  some  cases  all  the  slopes  were 
revetted  with  sods.  The  embrasures  varied  much  in  size,  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  particular  case ;  the  soles  generally  sodded,  the 
cheeks  revetted  with  sods,  gabions,  or  fascines.  Generally,  every  two 
guns  had  splinter-proof  gabion  traverses  from  two  to  three  tiers  in  height, 
two  to  three  gabions  wide  at  bottom,  and  one  at  top ;  no  fascines  between 
the  tiers;  the  gabions  vertical,  with  oflfsefe.  There  were  usually  ban- 
quettes between  the  embrasures,  which  latter  were  provided  with  rope 
mantelets :  the  magazines  generally  of  a  pentagonal  section,  and  covered 
with  12"  timber,  a  layer  of  fascines,  and  6'  of  earth;  the  cartridges 
placed  on  shelves. 

The  works  intended  to  act  against  shipping  were  provided  with  hot- 
shot furnaces,  and  heavy  guns  were  employed.  Whenever  the  field  works 
were  at  all  leisurely  constructed,*  nothing  could  have  been  more  perfect 
and  creditable  than  their  details. 

On  many  of  the  barbette  water  batteries,  the  following  arrangement 
was  used  for  aiming :  The  rear  traverse  circle  was  graduated  to  small 
fractions  of  degrees;  on  the  parapet  was  a  small  arc  graduated  pro- 
portionally; a  wooden  slat  about  3'  long,  and  provided  with  an  index 
traversed  on  this  arc ;  on  top  of  the  slat  were  two  fine  needle  sights.  It 
was  only  necessary  to  sight  the  ship  to  be  fired  at  with  these  needle  sights, 
take  the  reading  shown  by  the  index,  and  then  run  the  gun  to  the  same 
reading  on  the  rear  traverse  circle. 

THE   PRUSSIAN  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

They  are  called  pioneers,  and  perform  the  duties  of  sappers,  miners, 
and  pontoniers.  They  are  officered  by  details  from  the  corps  of  engineers, 
and  are  organized  in  divisions  of  two  companies  each.  In  time  of  war,  a 
reserve  or  depot  company  is  added  to  each  division.  There  is  a  division 
for  each  of  the  nine  army  corps,  and  two  independent  companies  for  the 
Confederation  fortresses  of  Mayence  and  Luxembourg.  On  the  war  foot- 
ing, the  strength  of  each  company  is  as  follows : 

4  officers. 

1  orderly  sergeant. 

1  ensign,  (a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  line  of  promotion.) 

3  sergeants. 

9  master  pioneers,  (an  intermediate  grade  of  non-commissioned  officer.) 

9  corporals. 
189  privates,  including  one  hospital  attendant. 

3  musicians. 

226  men,  exclusive  of  officers,  surgeons,  and  drivers. 


46      .  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

In  peace,  the  strength  is  reduced  to  about  one-half.  The  drivers  of 
the  tool  and  ponton  wagons  are  soldiers  of  the  train,  and  are  not  taken 
from  the  companies. 

When  the  whole  army  is  placed  on  the  war  footing,  the  strength  of  the 
pioneers  is  7,743  men,  exclusive  of  officers,  surgeons,  and  drivers.  All 
the  pioneer  material  is  made  at  the  engineer  arsenals.  In  the  trenches 
armor  is  not  used.  Experiments  have  been  made  with  helmets  and 
cuirasses  made  of  three  thicknesses  of  bull's  hide ;  the  results  are  said  to 
be  satisfactory.  The  men  carry  tools  in  slings,  never  attached  to  the 
knapsack.  They  are  armed  with  a  light  musket,  having  an  ordinary 
bayonet.  Pioneers  are  employed  as  overseers,  clerks,  master-workmen, 
&c.,  in  the  construction  of  permanent  works. 

MILITARY  BRIDGES. 

The  Birago  trestle  has  been  definitively  adopted,  but  somewhat  dimi- 
nished in  dimensions ;  his  sectional  ponton  only  partially,  if  at  all.  I  saw 
none  in  use  or  in  store. 

The  boats  are  of  wood,  and  are  20'  X  5'  X  2^'.  The  balks  are  18' 
X  5  J"  X  4";  chesses,  12'  X  10^'  X  !"•  The  anchors  are  of  two  sizes, 
the  smaller  weighing  80  lbs. 

The  wagons  are  drawn  by  six  horses,  and  weigh,  loaded,  from  4,800  to 
5,400  lbs.  The  balks  and  chesses  are  secured  on  the  wagons  by  bolts; 
the  boat  is  placed  on  top,  bottom  upwards;  the  cables,  oars,  anchors,  &c., 
are  placed  under  it.  There  are  two  oars  and  one  boat-hook  for  each  boat; 
buoys,  sounding-poles,  &c.,  are  provided.  A  bridge  train  consists  of  32 
boats,  and  requires  for  its  transportation  34  boat-wagons,  5  store-wagons, 
1  travelling  forge,  238  horses,  and  a  company  of  the  train,  (drivers,)  con- 
sisting of  1  officer,  6  non-commissioned  officers,  and  119  drivers.  The 
company  of  the  train  is  organized  only  when  the  troops  are  placed  on  the 
war  footing,  since  horses  are  provided  only  in  that  event. 

Each  division  of  pioneers  has  1  bridge  train,  constituted  as  above.  In 
addition  each  division  has  also  a  light  advanced  guard  trestle  bridge  train, 
which  consists  of  10  wagons,  can  follow  all  the  movements  of  artillery, 
and  most  of  those  of  the  cavalry. 

Some  of  the  officers  spoke  very  highly  of  the  Birago  trestle,  but  stated 
that  it  did  not  answer  well  on  a  very  boggy  bottom.  Nothing  peculiar 
was  observed  in  their  manner  of  throwing  and  dismantling  the  bridge ;  it 
was  well  and  rapidly  done ;  the  formation  of  the  various  detachments  is 
similar  to  our  own  system. 

SAPS. 

Gabions — 30''  high,  exterior  diameter  20",  7  stakes,  bound  by  4  withes 
at  6ne  end  and  by  3  at  the  other. 


EUEOPEAN  ENGINEER    TROOPS. 


47 


Sap  fagots  are  used,  but  are  generally  replaced  by  sand-bags.  Sand- 
bags ^0"  X  15"^  empty,  6''  X  ^"  when  filled.  Temporary  crowning  fas- 
cines are  not  used. 

The  sap  rollers  are  of  2  concentric  gabions,  in  the  English  style ;  the 
outer  cylinder  is  9'  long,  3'  4"  diameter  at  the  centres  of  the  stakes,  and 
has  23  stakes ;  the  inner  cylinder  is  7'  long,  and  1'  9"  in  diameter.  The 
s^ace  between  the  two  cylinders  is  stuffed  with  fascines,  and  the  ends 
closed  by  wooden  circles  of  2"  stuff.  The  picks  and  shovels  are  quite 
light ;  the  latter  have  straight  handles;  The  usual  handspikes,  chocks, 
&c.,  are  employed. 


The   annexed    sketch    repre- 
sents the  sap  hook. 


The  opposite  figure  shows  the 
butt  of  the  reverse  sap  hook. 


The  annexed  figure  represents 
the  butt  of  the  berm  sap  hook, 
a  chain  being  fastened  to  the 
ring  and  a  hook  to  the  end  of 
the  chain ;  the  hook  is  hooked 
to  the  wattling  of  the  gabionade, 
and  thus  held  secure. 


The  annexed 
sketch  represents 
the  sap  fork ;  its 
vertical  branch  is 
unusually  long; 
the  bar,  attached 
by  a  pin  to  the 
handle,  serves  as 
a  fulcrum  in  plac- 
ing the  gabion. 


Q 


n 


^ 


48  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

A  brigade  for  the  full  sap  is  composed  of  1  non-commissioned  officer 
and  8  men  ;  the  leading  sapper  fills  2  gabions  before  changing ;  the  man- 
ner of  working,  changing,  &c.,  presents  nothing  peculiar. 

The  centre  of  the  sap  roller  is  placed  on  the  alignment  of  the  interior 
slope  of  the  gabionade.  In  the  double  sap  the  rollers  are  never  fastened 
together ;  the  interval  between  them  is  covered  by  a  short  roller,  or  by  a 
pile  of  sand-bags. 

In  the  full  sap  the  berm  is  from  1'  to  2',  according  to  circumstances. 
No.  1  always  keeps  one  filled  gabion  in  advance  of  the  head  of  his  form. 

The  forms  of  the  sappers  are  as  follows:  No.l,  18"  X  18";  No.  2, 
24"  X  24";  No.  3,  30"  X  30";  No.  4,  36"  X  36".  Each  sapper  has  a 
wooden  measure  of  his  form.  In  crowning  the  covered  way  the  sap  is  4' 
deep. 

At  the  head  of  the  double  sap  there  is  a  rod  as  long  as  the  clear  inter- 
val between  the  gabionades ;  this  passes  through  rings  at  the  ends  of  two 
sticks,  one  of  which  is  at  the  side  of  each  1st  sapper,*  and  is  used  to  verify 
the  positions  of  the  gabions  last  placed. 

The  hurdle,  sod,  and  fascine  revetments,  military  pits,  palisades,  huts, 
&c.,  are  well  executed,  but  present  nothing  nov.el. 

Mines. — The  galleries  and  shafts  are  well  and  neatly  executed.  I 'ob- 
served but  two  peculiarities  in  regard  to  the  galleries:  first,  instead  of 
connecting  the  stanchions  of  adjacent  frames  by  battens  nailed  to  them, 
pieces  of  3"  scantling,  as  long  as  the  clear  interval  between  the  frames, 
are  driven  in  between  them  sideways  and  horizontally ;  second,  before 
driving  the  wedges  between  the  ends  of  adjacent  lengths  of  sheeting,  a 
strip  of  board  is  driven  in,  edgewise,  between  the  ends  of  the  sheeting 
planks,  at  right  angles  to  them.  In  the  shafts  the  frames  are  supported 
from  below. 

THE  AUSTRIAN  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

Their  duty  is  confined  to  that  of  sappers  and*  miners,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  permanent  works.  In  a  siege  the  batteries  are  built  by  the 
artillery.  The  construction  of  all  kinds  of  bridges,  and  of  field  fortifica- 
tions, the  repairs  of  roads,  &c.,  are  intrusted  to  the  pioneers,  a  special 
corps  belonging  to  the  general  staff. 

The  engineer  troops  receive,  however,  a  certain  amount  of  instruction  in 
these  duties,  that  they  may  be  able  to  perform  them  in  case  of  necessity. 
There  are  12  battalions  of  engineer  troops,  of  .4  companies  each.     A 
company  consists  of — 
1  captain. 
4  lieutenants. 
4  sergeants. 


EUBOPEAN  ENGINEER   TROOPS.  49 

8  conductors,  (an  intermediate  grade  of  non-commissioned  officer.) 
16  corporals. 
32  lance  corporals. 
148  privates. 

2  musicians. 

215— total. 

The  officers  are  detailed  from  the  corps  of  engineers.  Each  company 
is  divided  into  four  platoons,  one  of  which  is  especially  instructed  as 
miners,  the  remaining  three  as  sappers. 

They  are  armed  with  a  rifled  weapon,  having  a  26"  barrel,  and  a  bayonet 
19"  long. 

Figures  1  and  2  show  the  uniform,  accoutrements,  manner  of  carrying 
picks  and  shovels,  mode  of  packing  the  overcoat,  &c. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  formation  of  a  company  of  engineer  troops,  as  well  as 
the  distribution  of  the  various  tools.  In  addition  to  the  various  tools 
mentioned  in  that  plate,  each  man  carries  a  little  bag  containing  small 
tools,  nails,  &c. 

The  composition  of  a  brigade  for  the  full  sap  is  the  same  as  in  the 
French  system.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  in  the  Austrian  system  is 
their  method  of  executing  the  full  sap. 

Upon  commencing  his  work.  No.  1  finds  his  form  2  J'  wide  and  1^'  deep 
for  the  width  of  one  gabion  from  the  head,  in  rear  of  that  it  is  3' deep; 
at  the  point  where  the  form  of  No.  3  begins  the  trench  is  3'  wide.  A 
mantelet  is  often  used  on  the  berm  to  cover  the  5  leading  gabions,  in  rear 
of  the  sap  fagots.  No.  1  places  a  gabion,  and  fills  it  with  the  earth 
obtained  by  cutting  away  the  step  at  the  head  of  his  form,  assisted  by  No. 
2,  who  throws  into  the  gabion  some  of  the  loose  earth  he  finds  in  his  form. 
The  gabion  being  filled.  No.  1  continues  his  work  until  he  has  not  only 
cut  away  the  step  at  the  head  of  his  form,  but  has  excavated  another  just 
like  it,  extending  to  2'  from  the  sap  roller ;  after  he  has  filled  the  gabion, 
he  passes  back  the  loosened  earth  to  No.  2,  who  throws  it  over  the  gabion- 
ade, always  taking  care  to  leave  some  loose  earth  to  assist  in  filling  the 
next  gabion  placed.  No.  3  carries  the  sap  to  the  full  width ;  No.  4  places 
the  sap  fagots,  &c. ;  No.  1  is  relieved  after  having  filled  one  gabion  and 
completed  the  excavation  just  described;  his  task  usually  occupies  20 
minutes.  Temporary  crowning  fascines  are  sometimes  used.  The  sap 
roller  consists  of  a  single  cylinder,  stuffed  with  fascines. 

,  THE  AUSTRIAN   PIONEERS. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  this  corps  is  attached  to  the  general  staff, 
and  constructs  all  military  bridges,  field  works,  roads,  &c. ;  detachments 

4 


50 


THE    ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


Fig.l. 
Austrian  engineer  soldier. 


EUROPEAN   ENGINEER   TROOPS. 


51 


Fig.  2. 
Austrian  engineer  soldier. 


-^^^^T^' 


62  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

from  it  assist  in  making  surveys.     The  officers  are  distinct  from  those  of 
the  general  staflf,  and  are  promoted  in  the  arm. 

There  are  6  battalions,  of  4  companies  each.     A  company  consists  of; 

1  captain. 

4  lieutenants. 

2  sergeants. 
20  corporals. 

40  carpenters,  (20  of  the  1st  and  20  of  the  2d  class.) 
160  pioneers,  (40  of  the  1st  and  120  of  the  2d  class.) 
2  musicians. 

"229— total. 


The  company  is  divided  into  4  platoons, — their  arms,  accoutrements, 
and  moda  of  carrying  tools  being  precisely  like  those  of  the  engineer 
troops.     Figures  1  and  2  will  give  all  the  requisite  information. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  formation  of  a  company  and  the  distribution  of  the 
tools.  In  addition  to  the  tools,  &c.,  mentioned  in  the  figure,  3,000  nails 
and  various  small  tools  are  divided  among  the  men ;  the  maximum  load 
of  any  one  man  is  45 i  pounds,  every  thing  included. 

The  Birago  equipage  is  exclusively  used,  and  has  undergone  no  modifi- 
cation, except  that  the  sections  of  the  boats  are  connected  by  bolts  and 
keys  in  addition  to  the  hooks  on  the  sides. 

Experiments  are  now  being  made  to  substitute  boiler-iron  boats  for 
those  of  wood;  it  was  stated  that  they  were  of  about  the  same  weight 
as  the  wooden  ones,  and  that  they  would  probably  be  adopted.  I  ob- 
served a  number  of  them  at  Klosterneuberg.  All  the  bridge  materials, 
and  most  of  the  pioneer  tools,  are  made  by  the  men  of  the  corps,  the 
principal  arsenal  of  construction  being  at  Klosterneuberg,  near  Vienna. 

Each  company  has  two  bridge  equipages ;  an  equipage  consisting  of  the 
pontons,  trestles,  &c.,  necessary  to  form  a  bridge  174'  long;  15  wagons 
transport  this  amount  of  material,  and  they  are  so  packed  that  the 
equipage  may  be  divided  into  J,  i,  and  i. 

The  composition,  details,  and  properties  of  the  Birago  bridge  are  so 
well  known  to  all  interested  in  the  subject,  through  Haillot's  excellent 
description  of  it,  and  Birago's  "Examination  of  the  European  Systems 
of  Military  Bridges,"  that  it  is  altogether  unnecessary  to  describe  it  here. 

For  the  pioneers,  as  well  as  for  the  engineer  troops,  there  are  special 
tactics  for  the  infantry  drill  of  the  recruit,  company,  and  battalion  drills. 

All  the  details  of  the  Austrian  system  of  the  field  duties  of  the  pioneers, 
such  as  field  fortifications,  labors  in  camp,  repairing  roads,  making  bridges, 
&c.,  will  be  found  in  an  excellent  work  entitled,  "Technical  Pioneer- 
Service  in  the  Field,  by  Captain  Wasserthal  ;*'  or,  in  the  original, 
"  Technischer  Pionier-Dienst  im  Felde,  von  Konstantin  Wasserthal,  K.  K. 


63 


Fig.  3. — Company  of 


ic 

\h\-b\h\(i\cu 

cL\a\ci\cL\ 

cL\cb\a\a\(L\ii\' 

'\l\l\l}\a\cL\a\cL\(L\cL\a\a\a\a\i 

rlJ    1 

1 

\l\l\h\i\-b 

M'b\'b\c\ 

c\o\c\c\c\a\ 

\b\b\h\h\l\l\l\l\c\c\c\o\o\i 

M  I 

EC 

\k\k\k\h\i 

AAf^s\ 

g\f\f\e\e\d.\   \   \k\MMM7'\iM\MA^\f\f\e\^ 

AA  1 

CD 


/  Fig.  4. — Company 

^a\a\aAaAa\aAaJ\a\a.\aAa\a\a\a\a\a\Tt\Wif)\8\lc\a\a\a\a\a\ci\a\a\a\a\aAft'\cL^ 
\c\c\c\c\c\c\c\c\bWb\M'b\'{y\b\-b\7c\ 


[fc}    \c\c\c\c\c\o\c\b\-h\'b\lim'bWn\ 
\ll\i\v\t\t\t\h\ii\.9\g\c/\g\g\-f\e\emdM       \iM\i\i\Mh\g\g\.g\g\g\f\e\e\d\cim\ 


Captain. 

1st  lieutenant. 

2d  lieutenant. 

1st  sub-lieutenant. 

2d  sub-lieutenant. 

^ 

Sergeant. 

I. 

T7\  Conduct© 

Y~\  Corporal. 

[[  Musician. 

|g^  Pickaxe-( 

[F]  Shovel-ca 

\c\  Spade-car 


64 

jer  troops  (Austrian.) 

\'b\~h\l\(L\a\a\(t\a\a\ii\a\{t\cL\a\a\'\  -\l\b\b\a\(v\(v\a\a\(Aft'\to\(AAa^\a^\    B 
\l\l>\l\l\l\-b\l\-h\c\c\c\o\^V^[?^        \^\-b\'b\'b\'b\'b\i\'h\c\^\c\c\c\^A<^^ 
\'k\h\k\'k\i\i\i\Mg\ff\Af\'e\em   I   \k\-k\k\k\i\i\i\hVg\g\r\f\e\e\A   I'l 


EID 


tneers,  (Austrian.) 

I  a\a\a\  a\a\ii\a.\a\a-\(t\a\a\a\a\a-\7di7-f\-f\2  \'k\a,\a\a\ai(L\a\ei\a-\a\a\a\a^cL\eL\a\a\i2^ 
\c\c\c\c\c\c\c\e\l}-b\b\h\'b\b\i\'b\  \'k\c\c\c\c\c\c\o\c\'b\b\b\b\b\b\b\T\ 

\i\l\t\t\n[h\g\9\9\9\g\f\e\e\il\(L\i5\      \t\t\l\t\i\h\K\g\9\g\9\g\f\e\emdL\i3\i\ 

[^  Axe. 

0  Auger. 

f71  Pincers. 

g.  ^  Clamp-iron-carriers. 

[^  Saw-carriers. 

(T]  Men  with  two  shovels, 

nn  Men  Without  tools. 


EUROPEAN  ENGINEER  TROOPS.  55 

Pionier,  Hauptmann,  etc. ;  Wien,  Yerlag  von  Carl  Gerold  und  Sohn — 
1852." 


THE  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

Our  own  system  of  instruction  being  based  upon  the  French  and 
English,  their  organization  and  system  are  so  perfectly  well  known  in  our 
service  that  any  description  of  them  may  be  dispensed  with.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  no  essential  changes  have  been  introduced  of  late. 

In  the  course  of  the  observations  made  upon  the  operations  near  Sebas- 
topol  there  arises  the  necessity  of  alluding  to  the  manner  in  which  these 
systems  were  carried  into  practice,  as  well  as  the  temporary  modifications 
rendered  necessary  by  circumstances. 

In  concluding  this  brief  account  of  the  engineer  troops  of  different 
European  services,  there  are  a  few  points  to  which  I  would  ask  to  call  the^ 
attention  of  our  own  officers  of  engineers. 

In  regard  to  the  saps :  there  are  several  things  which  ought  at  least  to 
be  tried.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  Russian  system  of  reducing 
the  number  of  men  in  a  brigade  to  6 ;  the  Austrian  method  of  executing 
the  sap;  the  Russian  curved  mallet  for  fastening  the  crowning  fascines; 
the  Prussian  sap  hooks  and  sap  fork ;  the  system  of  leaving  the  two  sap 
rollers  at  the  head  of  the  double  sap  unconnected,  and  covering  the 
interval  by  a  third  roller  or  by  sand-bags ;  the  use  of  sand-bags,  instead 
of  sap  fagots,  for  covering  the  joints  at  the  head  of  the  sap,  and  the 
Austrian  manner  of  carrying  tools. 

In  reference  to  bridges  :  I  would  recommend  that  the  Birago  trestle,  in 
principle,  at  least,  be  definitively  adopted  as  a  part  of  our  system.  Its 
universal  adoption  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  after  careful  trial,  would 
appear  to  be  sufficient  evidence  that  its  theoretical  advantages  are  fully 
obtained  in  practice.  On  the  march  from  Matamoras  to  Victoria  and 
Tampico,  in  1846  and  1847,  we  had  very  great  difficulty  in  bridging  boggy 
streams  (there  being  no  suitable  timber)  and  in  crossing  ravines  with 
vertical  banks :  a  few  bays  of  the  Birago  trestles  would  have  saved  us 
many  days  and  a  vast  amount  of  labor.  In  the  operations  in  the  valley 
of  Mexico,  our  movements,  checked  as  they  so  often  were  by  impassable 
wet  ditches  and  sometimes  by  dry  ravines,  would  have  been  rendered  so 
much  more  free  and  rapid  by  the  use  of  the  Birago  trestles  that  our 
successes  could  have  been  gained  at  far  less  cost,  and  probably  with  even 
more  rapidity,  than  they  were. 

With  respect  to  the  boats:  fully  appreciating  the  great  advantages 
arising  from  the  lightness  of  our  India-rubber  pontons,  I  have  never  felt 
satisfied  that  they  could  afford,  in  practice,  the  advantages  expected  of 
them.     The  material  deteriorates  and  becomes  worthless  very  rapidly, — 


56  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

probably  the  inevitable  result  of  the  process  of  manufacture.  It  is  at 
least  doubtful  whether,  even  in  new  pontons,  the  manner  of  attaching  the 
cable  affords  sufficient  strength,  should  a  heavy  load  cross  the  bridge, 
when  thrown  over  a  wide  and  rapid  stream.  The  pontons  are  not  j&t  to  be 
used  as  boats  in  ferrying  troops  over  rapid  streams,  espefcially  under  fire. 

In  attaching  the  frame  to  the  ponton,  the  loops  soon  give  way,  and 
cannot  be  repaired  in  the  field. 

The  bridge  has  never  been  fairly  tested;  that  is,  it  has  never  been 
thrown  across  any  stream,  much  less  a  rapid  one,  and  a  heavy  load  passed 
over  it. 

I  would  therefore  suggest  that  the  equipage  ought  not  to  be  exclusively 
relied  upon  in  the  field  until  it  has  been  tested  by  taking  it  to  some  place 
where  it  can  be  thrown  over  a  rapid  stream,  at  least  100  yards  wide,  and 
the  heaviest  loads  passed  over,  and  where,  too,  its  capacity,  in  the  form 
of  single  boats  and  rafts,  can  be  fully  tried.  I  would  at  the  same  time 
suggest  the  propriety  of  experimenting  with  sectional  boats,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Birago  boats,  but  made  of  the  corrugated  iron. 

Our  force  of  artillery  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  other  arms  of  service, 
while  the  number  of  our  engineer  troops  is  ridiculously  and  shamefully 
small :  it  is,  therefore,  more  than  probable  that  in  any  future  siege  it  will 
be  easy  for  the  artillery  to  construct  their  own  batteries,  while  the  en- 
gineers will  be  sufficiently  burdened  by  the  construction  of  the  other 
works  of  attack.  We  have  now,  at  last,  the  germ  of  an  artillery  school  of 
practice :  I  would  then  suggest,  for  the  consideration  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, the  propriety  of  causing  the  artillery  to  construct  their  own  batteries. 
The  position  and  armament  of  siege  batteries  should  be  determined  by 
consultation  between  the  engineers  and  artillery,  the  former  having  the 
preponderating  voice,  in  order  to  secure  the  necessary  harmony  and  con- 
nection between  all  parts  of  the  works  of  attack. 

I  would  recommend  that  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  engineer 
company  be  reduced  to  form,  and  that  a  full  and  detailed  system  for  the 
construction  of  material,  saps,  mines,  field  works,  bridges,  construction 
of  field  ovens,  repairs  of  roads,  &c.,  be  adopted  and  published  for  the 
benefit  of  the  service. 

If  the  artillery  be  charged  with  the  construction  of  batteries,  there 
should  also  be  adopted  and  published  for  their  use  an  artillery  manual, 
comprising  every  thing  in  relation  to  the  preparation  of  the  fascines, 
gabions,  platforms,  and  magazines,  the  dimensions  of  batteries,  manner 
of  arranging  working  parties,  &c. 


THE   FRENCH   INFANTRY.  57 


FRENCH,  AUSTRIAN,  PRUSSIAN,  AND  SARDINIAN 

INFANTRY. 


THE  FRENCH  INFANTRY. 


The  infantry  of  the  French  army  is  divided  into  several  classes: 
1st.  The  infantry  of  the  imperial  guard;  2d.  The  infantry  of  the  line; 
3d.  The  battalions  of  foot  rifles,  (chasseurs  a  pied, — formerly  d' OrlianSj 
or  de  Vincennes;)  4th.  The  zouaves;  5th.  The  light  infantry  of  Africa; 
6th.  The  foreign  legions;  7th.  The  native  (African)  light  infantry. 

The  infantry  of  the  guard  is  organized  in  two  divisions,  each  of  two 
brigades. 

1st  division,  1st  brigade:  1  regiment  of  gendarmes,  2  battalions;  the 
1st  regiment  of  grenadiers,  4  battalions;  the  regiment  of  zouaves,  2  bat- 
talions. 

2d  brigade :  the  2d  regiment  of  grenadiers,  4  battalions ;  the  3d  regi- 
ment of  grenadiers,  4  battalions.     Total  of  1st  division,  16  battalions. 

2d  division,  1st  brigade :  the  1st  regiment  of  voltigeurs,  4  battalions; 
the  2d  regiment  of  voltigeurs,  4  battalions;  the  battalion  of  foot  rifles. 

2d  brigade:  the  3d  regiment  of  voltigeurs,  4  battalions;  the  4th  regi- 
ment of  voltigeurs,  4  battalions..  Total  of  2d  division,  17  battalions. 
Total  infantry  of  the  imperial  guard,  33  battalions. 

The  battalions  of  gendarmes,  grenadiers,  and  voltigeurs  have  6  com- 
panies ;  the  battalions  of  zouaves  7  companies,  of  which  1  is  a  depot  com- 
pany; the  battalion  of  foot  rifles  has  10  companies. 

The  infantry  of  the  line  consists  of  102  regiments,  each  of  3  battalions; 
the  battalion  has  8  companies. 

There  are  20  battalions  of  foot  rifles;  10  companies  in  a  battalion. 

There  are  3  regiments  of  zouaves,  each  of  3  battalions ;  the  battalion  of 
9  companies,  1  of  which  is  a  depot  company. 

The  light  infantry  of  Africa  consists  of  3  battalions,  each  of  7  com- 
panies, 1  of  which  is  a  depot  company. 

There  are  2  foreign  legions,  each  legion  of  2  regiments,  the  regiments 
having  3  battalions  of  8  companies;  to  the  2d  legion  is  attached,  ia 
addition,  a  rifle  battalion  of  10  companies. 


58 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


The  native  light  infantry  consists  of  1  regiment  of  2  battalions,  having 
8  Companies  each,  and  of  6  independent  battalions,  varying  from  3  to  8 
companies  each. 

The  staff  of  a  regiment  of  3  battalions  consists  of:  1  colonel;  1  lieu- 
tenant-colonel; 3  chiefs  of  battalion;  1  major;  4  adjutants,  with  the  rank 
of  captain,  (capitaine  adjutant  major;')!  treasurer,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
{capitaine  trSsorier;)  1  captain  of  clothing,  (^capitaine  d'habillement;) 
1  assistant  treasurer,  a  sub-lieutenant ;  1  standard-bearer,  a  sub-lieutenant; 
3  surgeons. 

To  the  staff  of  a  regiment  of  4  battalions  1  chief  of  battalion  is  added. 
On  the  staff  of  a  regiment  of  2  battalions  there  are  but  2  chiefs  of  bat- 
talion and  2  adjutants. 

To  the  staff  of  many  of  the  regiments  a  lieutenant  of  the  general  staff 
(Itat-major)  is  attached,  for  his  instruction  in  the  service  of  the  arm. 

The  staff  of  an  independent  battalion,  such  as  those  of  the  foot  rifles,  &c., 
consists  of:  1  chief  of  battalion;  1  captain  major,  a  captain  doing  the 
duty  of  major;  1  captain   adjutant;    1  captain,  as   instructor  of  firing; 

1  lieutenant,  acting  as  treasurer;  1  lieutenant,  acting  as  clothing  officer; 

2  surgeons. 

The  non-commissioned  staff  of  a  regiment  of  3  battalions  consists  of: 

3  non-commissioned  adjutants,  (sergeant  majors;)  1  drum  major,  or  chief 
bugler;  3  "corporal  drummers,"  or  buglers;  1  corporal  of  pioneers; 
12  pioneers;  1  band-master;  1  corporal  of  musicians;  25  musicians. 

For  an  independent  battalion  the  non-commissioned  staff  consists  of: 
1  non-commissioned  adjutant,  1  chief  bugler,  1  corporal  of  buglers. 

In  each  regiment  there  is  a  ^^  company  out  of  ranks,"  composed  of 
mechanics,  &c. ;  attached  to  each  independent  battalion,  a  "  section  out 
of  ranks." 


Reg't.      Batt'n. 


SERGEANTS. 

First  sergeant 

Wagon-master,  with  the  rank  of  1st  sergeant. 

Clerks  of  the  treasurer 

In  charge  of  clothing  magazine 

Fencing-master 

Masters  armorer,  tailor,  and  shoemaker 

CORPOEALS. 

Clerk  of  treasurer 

Quartermaster  of  the  staff 

Clerks  of  oflBcers  of  clothing  and  armament. . 

Hospital  steward , 

Conductor  of  the  train 


THE    FRENCH   INFANTRY. 


59 


PRIVATES. 

Armorer,  (1,)  tailors  and  shoemakers 

Clerk  of  commanding  ofiBcer 

Clerk  of  lieutenant-colonel 

Clerks  of  treasurer  and  assistant  treasurer 

Clerks  of  clothing  officer 

Armorers 

Tailors,  varying  with  the  strength  of  the  corps 

Shoemakers,  varying  with  the  strength  of  the  corps 

Muleteers 

Enfant  de  troupe , 

Total  of  company  or  section  out  of  ranks 


Reg't 


77 


Batfn. 


5 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

27 

18 

23 

15 

2 

1 

48 


With  the  exception  of  the  foot  rifles,  a  company  consists  of:  1  captain, 
1  lieutenant,  1  sub-lieutenant,  1  orderly  sergeant,  4  sergeants,  1  quarter- 
master sergeant,  8  corporals,  96  privates,  (the  number  of  privates  varies 
somewhat  according  to  circumstances,)  2  musicians,  2  pupils  in  music, 
1  enfant  de  troupe.  In  the  foot  rifles  there  are :  an  additional  sergeant  as 
instructor  of  firing,  4  buglers,  no  pupils  in  music,  and  from  100  to  130 
privates. 

The  light  infantry  are  formed  in  two  ranks,  the  heavy  infantry  in  three 
ranks. 

The  depot  system  appears  to  vary.  In  time  of  peace,  one  of  the  bat- 
talions may  be  used  as  a  depot;  in  war,  either  additional  companies  are 
added  to  each  battalion,  or  an  additional  battalion  created  for  the  purpose. 

The  duties  of  the  colonel  are  about  as  in  our  service. 

The  lieutenant-colonel  is  in  charge  of  all  the  order-books. 

The  chiefs  of  battalion  are  directly  responsible  to  the  colonel  for  the 
instruction,  discipline,  service,  dress,  condition  of  the  arms,  messing, 
quarters,  &c.,  of  their  respective  battalions. 

It  is  the  special  duty  of  the  major  to  examine  and  countersign  all 
requisitions  for  arms,  clothing,  subsistence,  fuel,  &c. 

The  duties  of  the  captain  adjutants  in  their  respective  battalions  cor- 
respond very  nearly  with  those  of  our  regimental  adjutants. 

The  tactics  of  the  French  infantry  have  not  been  changed  since  they 
were  adopted  in  our  service.  But  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  individual 
"setting  up"  of  the  men;  consequently,  they  present  rather  a  slouching 
appearance.  An  exception  to  this  rule  is  found  in  the  4lite  corps,  for 
which  men  with  a  good  natural  bearing  are  selected.  Much  irregularity 
is  tolerated  in  marching,  it  being  only  required  that  the  guides  preserve 


60  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

their  distances  with  great  exactness.  In  the  movements  of  large  columns 
it  is  very  rare  to  see  any  mistakes  in  this  matter.  The  men  are  allowed 
the  utmost  ease  and  latitude  in  ranks.  Some  essential  parts  of  the  French 
instruction  have  been  omitted  in  our  own,  such  as  the  system  of  gymnas- 
tics, natation,  &c. 

The  smooth-bore  musket  is  still  in  general  use  for  the  infantry  of  the 
line;  the  light  infantry  and  elite  corps  have  rifled  arms.  All  buglers 
carry  a  rifle;  the  drummers  have  none.  The  infantry  sabre  is  regarded 
by  the  men  as  a  useless  encumbrance:  they  are  probably  the  best  judges. 

The  grenadiers  and  voltigeurs  of  the  guard  have  the  old-fashion  cross 
belts,  without  waist-belt;  all  other  troops  have  only  a  waist-belt,  the 
bayonet-scabbard,  cartridge-box,  &c.,  being  attached  to  it. 

The  knapsack  is  of  the  pattern  in  possession  of  the  Department.  It  is 
small  and  of  cowskin,  with  the  hair  left  on.  The  shoulder-straps  pass 
straight  over  the  shoulders,  and  hook  to  brass  loops  on  the  waist-belt. 
Another  strap  is  fastened  to  the  under  surface  of  the  knapsack  near  each 
outer  corner,  and  buttons  to  the  shoulder-strap  a  little  above  the  armpit. 

When  the  overcoat  is  not  worn,  it  is  rolled  in  a  long  roll,  and  strapped 
on  top  and  on  the  two  sides  of  the  knapsack.  The  shelter  tent  is  car- 
ried in  the  same  manner,  under  the  overcoat,  if  both  are  attached  to 
the  knapsack. 

The  shelter  tent  and  manner  of  using  it  are  described  in  connection 
with  the  French  cavalry.  The  supporting  sticks  are  in  two  parts,  the 
pointed  end  having  a  sheet-iron  socket  into  which  the  upper  part  fits. 
Each  man  carries  one  piece  of  the  tent,  one  stick,  and  two  or  three  small 
tent-pins. 

The  infantry  rations  are  the  same  as  for  the  cavalry;  so  also  their  cook- 
ing-utensils. In  the  infantry,  each  mess  generally  consists  of  14  men,  and 
has  2  gamelles,  1  lidon,  1  marmite,  sometimes  a  stewpan  in  addition. 
The  men  of  the  mess  take  turns  in  carrying  these,  attaching  them  to  the 
knapsack,  or  in  any  other  manner  they  find  most  convenient.  The  knap- 
sacks are  never  carried  in  the  wagons. 


The  annexed  sketch  shows  the  form  and  dimensions  of 
the  canteen.  It  is  of  tin,  covered  with  cloth,  suspended 
by  a  cord. 


QT^ 


The  rations  are  generally  carried  in  the  knapsack. 
The  uniform  of  the  infantry  of  the  line  is  too  well  known  to  require 
description.     In  the  Crimea,  they  wore  the  overcoat,  with  epaulettes,  and 


THE   FRENCH  INFANTRY.  61 

the  forage  cap;  a  jacket  in  camp.  The  frock-coats  and  shakos  were  left 
in  France. 

The  grenadiers  and  voltigeurs  of  the  guard  have  the  uniform  of  the 
imperial  guard  of  the  first  empire,  except  that  pants  are  substituted  for 
the  old  knee-breeches. 

The  foot  rifles  of  the  guard  wear  a  jacket  with  long  skirts,  and  very 
loose  pants,  which  are  tucked  under  leather  gaiters  extending  to  the  top 
of  the  calf  of  the  leg. 

The  infantry  of  the  line,  rifles,  &c.,  wore  a  light-blue  merino  scarf,  in 
lieu  of  a  stock,  in  the  Crimea. 

The  dress  of  the  zouave  is  of  the  Arab  pattern ;  the  cap  is  a  loose  fez, 
or  skull-cap,  of  scarlet  felt,  with  a  tassel ;  a  turban  is  worn  over  this  in 
full  dress  j  a  cloth  vest  and  loose  jacket,  which  leave  the  neck  unencum- 
bered by  collar,  stock,  or  cravat,  cover  the  upper  portion  of  his  body,  and 
allow  free  movement  of  the  arms ;  the  scarlet  pants  are  of  the  loose  Orien- 
tal pattern,  and  are  tucked  under  gaiters  like  those  of  the  foot  rifles  of  the 
guard;  the  overcoat  is  a  loose  cloak,  with  a  hood;  the  chasseurs  wear  a 
similar  one.  The  men  say  that  this  dress  is  the  most  convenient  possible, 
and  prefer  it  to  any  other. 

The  zouaves  are  all  French;  they  are  selected  from  among  the  old 
campaigners  for  their  fine  physique  and  tried  courage,  and  have  certainly 
proved  that  they  are  what  their  appearance  would  indicate, — the  most 
reckless,  self-reliant,  and  complete  infantry  that  Europe  can  produce. 

With  his  graceful  dress,  soldierly  bearing,  and  vigilant  attitude,  the 
zouave  at  an  outpost  is  the  beau-ideal  of  a  soldier. 

They  neglect  no  opportunity  of  adding  to  their  personal  comforts :  if 
there  is  a  stream  in  the  vicinity,  the  party  marching  on  picket  is  sure  to  be 
amply  supplied  With  fishing-rods,  &c. ;  if  any  thing  is  to  be  had,  the  zouaves 
are  quite  certain  to  obtain  it. 

Their  movements  are  the  lightest  and  most  graceful  I  have  ever  seen ; 
the  stride  is  long,  but  the  foot  seems  scarcely  to  touch  the  ground,  and 
the  march  is  apparently  made  without  eff'ort  or  fatigue. 

The  step  of  the  foot  rifles  is  shorter  and  quicker,  and  not  so  easy  and 
graceful. 

The  impression  produced  by  the  appearance  of  the  rifles  and  of  the 
zouaves  is  very  diff"erent :  the  rifles  look  like  active,  energetic  little  fellows, 
who  would  find  their  best  field  as  skirmishers ;  but  the  zouaves  have,  com- 
bined with  all  the  activity  and  energy  of  the  others,  that  solid  ensemhle  and 
reckless  dare-devil  individuality  which  would  render  them  alike  formidable 
when  attacking  in  mass,  or  in  defending  a  position  in  the  most  desperate 
hand-to-hand  encounter.  Of  all  the  troops  that  I  have  ever  seen,  I  should 
esteem  it  the  greatest  honor  to  assist  in  defeating  the  zouaves.  The 
grenadiers  of  the  guard  are  all  large  men,  and  a  fine-looking,  soldierly  set. 


62  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

The  voltigeurs  are  small,  active  men,  but  larger  than  the  rifles ;  they 
are  light  infantry. 

The  appearance  of  the  infantry  of  the  line  is  by  no  means  impressive; 
it  requires  close  watching  to  appreciate  their  excellent  qualities. 

The  regulations  for  the  government  of  troops  in  the  field  are  strictly 
carried  into  practice,  and  appear  to  work  well :  the  only  complaint 
appeared  to  be  that  the  number  of  returns  and  accounts  required  was  so 
great  that  it  was  impossible  to  make  them  out  in  time ;  the  consequence 
was  stated  to  be  that  most  officers  were  very  much  behindhand  with  their 
accounts. 

The  regiments  with  the  shelter  tents  generally  bivouacked  in  line. 

In  the  field  portable  ovens  of  sheet  iron  are  frequently  used.  These, 
with  all  the  necessary  utensils,  are  packed  in  boxes  which  may  be  trans- 
ported either  on  mules  or  in  wagons ;  each  division  is  provided  with  a  set 
of  these,  which  require  from  2  to  3  wagons  for  their  transportation.  With 
the  stone  and  earth  usually  to  be  found  at  the  camp,  these  ovens  can  be 
set  up  and  put  in  working  order  in  24  hours. 

In  the  Crimea  bread  was  baked  in  permanent  ovens  established  at 
Kamiesch.  Coffee  was  usually  sent  to  the  Crimea  green,  and  roasted  there 
by  the  men,  each  mess  having  a  coffee-mill.  The  cakes  of  biscuit  are  f " 
thick,  about  3  to  a  ration ;  they  are  put  up  in  boxes  containing  100  rations, 
which  pack  well  in  the  subsistence-wagon,  or  can  be  carried  on  mules. 
The  exterior  dimensions  of  these  boxes  are  31i"  X  18i"  X  13i".  The 
biscuit  is  dried  15  days  before  being  packed,  is  packed  tight,  and  will  keep 
for  many  years. 

The  system  of  fencing  with  the  bayonet,  which  is  in  general  use  in  the 
French  army,  does  not  differ  materially  from  our  own;  a  gutta-percha 
bayonet,  with  a  button,  is  used.  The  System  of  G-ymnastics  (edition  of 
1847)  gives  the  full  details  of  all  the  materials  necessary,  and  excellent 
plates  illustrating  the  various  exercises. 

The  system  of  instruction  in  natation,  by  the  chief  of  battalion  d' Argy, 
is  simple  and  excellent. 

There  is  a  gymnastic  school,  near  Vincennes,  to  which  one  sergeant  or 
corporal  is  sent  from  every  regiment  and  independent  battalion.  They 
remain  six  months  at  the  school,  the  best  pupils  being  retained  six 
months  longer  as  assistant  instructors. 

The  course  consists  of  gymnastics,  scaling  walls,  swimming,  fencing 
with  the  bayonet,  singing,  dancing,  reading,  writing,  &c. 

The  agility  and  skill  exhibited  by  the  pupils  were  really  wonderful. 

The  efficiency  of  the  French  infantry  is  in  no  small  degree  attributable 
to  the  great  attention  paid  to  these  points  throughout  the  army. 

Shortly  before  our  visit  to  the  gymnastic  school,  a  series  of  experiments 
had  been  carried  on  there,  by  authority  of  the  minister  of  war,  in  a  system 


THE  AUSTRIAN  INFANTRY.  63 

of  field  telegraphing,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Swaim,  an  American.  The 
object  is  to  communicate  orders  and  intelligence,  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach,  by  means  of  combinations  of  simple  objects,  such  as  a  cap  or  coat  on 
the  point  of  a  bayonet,  &c.  It  was  stated  by  the  officers  that  the  system 
worked  admirably  and  was  of  value.  It  would  be  worth  the  while  of  our 
government  to  inquire  into  the  matter. 

At  Vincennes  there  is  a  school  of  firing  for  officers  of  infantry.  A  lieu- 
tenant or  sub-lieutenant  is  sent  here  every  year  from  every  regiment  or 
independent  battalion  of  infantry. 

The  course  is  of  four  months,  and  comprises  the  theory  and  practice  of 
target-firing,  full  instruction  as  to  the  construction,  use,  and  preservation 
of  fire-arms,  preparation  of  cartridges,  &c. 

In  a  lesson  in  aiming,  given  by  the  chief  of  battalion  Minie,  the  gist  of 
his  instructions  was  this :  Always  press  the  butt  against  the  shoulder;  in 
aiming  at  a  near  object,  (without  the  hausse,)  raise  the  shoulder,  in  order 
to  bring  the  low  sight  up  to  the  level  of  the  eye ;  in  aiming  at  a  distant 
object,  (with  the  high  hausse,)  lower  the  shoulder,  so  as  to  bring  the  top 
of  the  hausse  on  a  level  with  the  eye. 

The  barracks  generally  allow  sufficient  space,  but  are  not  well  arranged 
for  the  quietness  of  the  men. 

The  bunks  usually  consist  of  boards  supported  by  iron  trestles ;  some- 
times of  iron  bedsteads. 

The  police  of  the  quarters  is  not  generally  good ;  but  the  habits  of  the 
nation  are  not  remarkable  for  neatness. 

In  the  field,  as  well  as  in  quarters,  the  officers  bestow  the  utmost  care 
upon  the  comfort  and  well-being  of  the  men,  rightly  regarding  that  as 
probably  the  most  essential  element  to  insure  efficiency,  contentment, 
and  willing  obedience.  This  example  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  for 
imitation. 

THE  AUSTRIAN  INFANTRY. 

This  consists  of  62  regiments  of  the  line,  14  regiments  of  frontier 
infantry,  and  32  battalions  of  rifles. 

During  peace,  the  line  regiments  consist  of  4  field  battalions  of  6 
companies  each,  and  1  depot  battalion  of  4  companies.  In  war,  the  4 
grenadier  companies  are  detached  from  their  respective  battalions  and 
form  a  separate  battalion,  being  replaced  in  the  field  battalions  by  new 
companies. 

The  frontier  regiments  have  2  field  and  1  depot  battalion. 

Of  the  rifle  battalions,  26  consist  of  4  companies,  the  remainder  of  6 
companies  each ;  each  of  the  latter  has  a  depot  company,  while  there  is  1 
depot  company  for  every  two  of  the  4  company  battalions. 

A  grenadier  company  consists  of:  1  captain,  1  lieutenant,  2  sub-lieu- 


64  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

tenants,  2  sergeants,  12  corporals,  150  privates,  2  drummers,  and  2 
pioneers. 

The  other  infantry  companies  consist  of:  1  captain,  1  lieutenant,  2  sub- 
lieutenants, 2  sergeants,  12  corporals,  12  lance  corporals,  180  to  200 
privates,  2  buglers,  2  drummers,  and  2  pioneers. 

A  rifle  company  consists  of:  4  officers,  2  sergeants,  12  corporals,  20 
lance  corporals,  160  privates,  2  buglers,  and  2  pioneers. 

The  company  is  divided  into  4  platoons,  and  the  formation  is  always  in 
3  ranks. 

The  step  is  30"  long,  and  at  the  rate  of  from  105  to  108  per  minute. 

The  school  of  the  recruit  comprises  the  individual,  squad,  and  platoon 
drills,  in  close  order,  and  as  skirmishers ;  it  contains  full  instructions  as 
to  running,  jumping,  &c.,  detailed  instructions  in  regard  to  target-practice 
and  the  theory  of  firing,  and  a  full  system  for  fencing  with  the  bayonet. 

In  the  skirmish  drill  the  chain  is  composed  of  groups  of  three  men ;  the 
rear  rank,  or  a  part  of  it,  being  habitually  employed  as  skirmishers. 

In  the  formation  of  a  company  in  line,  the  captain  is  three  paces  in 
rear  of  the  centre ;  if  the  company  is  alone,  he  is  at  half-company  dis- 
tance in  front  of  the  centre ;  the  1st  lieutenant  is  on  the  right  of  the 
front  rank ;  the  2d  lieutenant  on  the  left  of  the  front  rank ;  the  3d  lieu- 
tenant by  the  side  of  the  captain,  when  the  latter  is  in  rear  of  the  com- 
pany; the  sergeants  are  in  the  front  rank,  between  the  second  and  third 
platoons ;  four  corporals  are  posted  as  file-closers  behind  the  centres  of 
the  wings  of  the  company,  the  others  on  the  flanks  of  platoons ;  the 
drummers  and  pioneers  are  six  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre ;  the  buglers 
of  an  infantry  company  are  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  centre  rank. 

In  a  rifle  company,  the  pioneers  take  the  place  just  prescribed  for  the 
buglers  of  an  infantry  company,  and  the  four  buglers  are  posted  six  paces 
behind  the  centre  of  the  company. 

The  field  officers  of  a  regiment  consist  of  one  colonel  commanding,  and 
one  field  officer  (a  lieutenant-colonel  or  a  major)  to  command  each  battalion. 
There  are  a  regimental  adjutant  (a  lieutenant)  and  a  battalion  adjutant  (a 
sub-lieutenant)  for  each  battalion. 

Each  battalion  has  its  own  colors. 

The  interval  between  battalions  is  twelve  paces. 

The  column  by  companies  is  the  habitual  column  of  manoeuvre ;  it  is 
formed  with  full  distance,  in  close  column,  (three  paces  clear  distance 
between  the  subdivisions,)  and  closed  in  mass,  (without  distance  between 
the  subdivisions.)  In  the  manoeuvres  of  large  bodies  of  troops  the  two 
latter  are  most  frequently  employed. 

The  Austrian  system  of  forming  square,  and  the  constant  illustrations 
given  in  their  tactics  of  the  adaptation  of  principles  to  the  ground,  are 
worthy  of  study,  and,  to  some  extent,  of  imitation. 


THE   AUSTRIAN   INFANTRY.  65 

It  may  be  remarked  of  the  Austrian,  as  well  as  of  most  of  the  European, 
infantry,  that  men  are  allowed  to  swing  the  arm  freely,  and  that  the  piece 
is  much  more  frequently  carried  at  a  slope  than  at  a  carry. 

The  rifles  habitually  carry  their  pieces  slung  on  the  right  shoulder, 
(not  across  the  back,)  the  rifle  behind  the  shoulder,  and  vertical,  the  sling 
passing  in  front,  and  grasped  by  the  right  hand.  This  appears  to  be  the 
most  convenient  and  least  fatiguing  manner  of  carrying  it. 

Under  the  new  system  all  small  arms  are  rifled,  and  have  a  uniform 
calibre  and  lock }  the  calibre  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  our  own  new- 
model  rifled  musket. 

The  barrel  of  the  infantry  musket  is  37 i  inches  long,  has  four  shallow 
grooves,  and  a  charge  of  55  grains. 

The  men  of  the  rear  rank  have  a  hausse  for  longer  distances  than  those 
of  the  front  and  centre  ranks  3  in  other  respects  the  weapons  are  the 
same ;  the  bayonet  has  four  grooves ;  the  barrel  of  the  rifle  is  28  inches 
long ;  the  rear  rank  of  the  rifles  carry  a  "  tige  rifle  '/'  the  rifle  has  a  sword 
bayonet ;  the  rammer  is  separate  from  the  rifle,  has  a  wooden  handle,  and 
is  attached  to  the  shoulder-belt.  Thin  white  cross  belts  are  used,  without 
a  waist-belt ;  in  the  rifles  the  belts  are  black.  The  cartridge-box  con- 
tains four  packages  of  six  rounds  each,  and  the  cleaning-utensils;  six 
additional  packages  are  carried  in  the  knapsack.  The  Tyrolese  rifles  use 
the  powder-horn.  Non-commissioned  officers  of  infantry,  and  all  the 
grenadiers,  wear  infantry  sabres. 

In  each  company  16  hatchets  are  carried  in  a  leather  case  attached  to 
the  bayonet-scabbard  belt. 

Drums  of  brass,  12  inches  high  and  16  inches  in  diametec 

The  bugle  is,  more  properly  speaking,  a  clarion. 

No  fifes  are  used. 

Musicians  have  a  sabre,  but  no  fire-arms. 

The  pioneers  carry  a  saw,  axe,  and  hatchet,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
engineer  troops. 

The  officers  have  a  light  sabre. 

The  knapsack  is  of  cowskin,  with  the  hair  left  on;  it  is  12  inches 
square,  and  4^  inches  thick.  No  breast-strap  is  used  for  the  knapsack; 
the  two  shoulder-straps  are  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the 
knapsack,  pass  over  the  shoulder  and  under  the  arm  to  the  outer  ends  of 
the  bottom  of  the  knapsack ;  fastened  on  the  left  side  by  a  buckle,  on  the 
right  by  a  ring  and  hook. 

The  infantry  shako,  cut  of  the  uniform,  belts,  &c.,  are  shown  in  the 
figures  accompanying  the  description  of  the  Austrian  engineer  troops. 
The  shako  is  of  black  felt,  with  leather  top  and  visor ;  large  brass  eagle 
in  front ;  wooden  pompon,  trimmed  with  brass ;  a  black  water-proof  cover 


66  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

goes  over  the  shako  and  visor;  when  this  is  put  on,  the  pompon  and 
eagle  are  removed,  and  put  inside  the  shako  in  the  top  lining. 

The  forage  cap  is  of  light-blue  cloth,  of  the  gig-top  shape ;  it  has  no 
visor,  but  two  flaps  of  cloth,  (which  can  be  turned  up,)  serving  as  ear- 
covers  in  cold  weather,  and  which  may  serve  as  substitutes  for  a  visor. 
The  men  are  all  provided  with  mittens  of  blue  cloth. 

The  frock-coat  is  of  excellent  thick  white  cloth;  the  buttons  white 
and  plain;  coat  lined  with  thick  linen;  facings  and  cuffs  different  for 
different  regiments. 

This  white  coat  always  looks  well,  and  the  officers  prefer  it  to  any  other 
color,  stating  that  it  is  very  easy  to  keep  it  clean  in  the  field,  by  washing 
and  pipe-clay. 

The  men  usually  wear  a  vest,  made  of  an  old  coat. 
The  pants  are  of  light-blue  cloth,  with  a  white  cord;   always  have 
pockets.     The  pants  of  the  Hungarian  and  Croat  infantry  fit  perfectly 
tight  to  the  legs. 

Gaiters  of  black  cloth. 

The  shoes  come  well  up  on  the  ankle;  the  men  put  nails  and  iron  heels 
upon  them. 

The  stock  black,  with  a  white  edge  on  top ;  it  has  a  bottom  flap. 
The  overcoat  is  of  gray  cloth,  with  a  large  rolling  collar;  it  is  made 
quite  loose.     All  guards  in  garrison  are  provided  with  special  overcoats 
for  the  sentinels. 

The  coat  and  pants  of  the  rifles  are  of  a  bluish  gray,  cut  like  those  of 
the  infantry;  but,  instead  of  the  shoulder-strap,  there  is  placed  at  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  a  raised  crescent-shaped  pad  of  cloth. 

Their  hat  is  of  felt,  turned  up  on  both  sides,  and  has  a  large  black 
plume  of  cocks'  feathers. 

The  overcoat  is  folded  in  a  long  roll,  and  strapped  to  the  top  and 
both  sides  of  the  knapsack.  Extra  shoes  are  tied  to  the  sides  of  the 
knapsack. 

The  uniform  coat  is  always  carried  in  the  field;  no  extra  pants  carried. 
The  forage  cap  is  carried  in  a  small  pocket  on  the  front  of  the  knapsack. 
The  contents  of  the  knapsack  are:  1  pair  of  drawers,  1  shirt,  1  hand- 
kerchief, 1  pair  of  feet-wrappers,  (socks  not  being  used,)  and  the  usual 
brushes,  cleaning-utensils,  &c. 

The  clothing  is  issued  to  the  captains  either  made  up,  but  not  trimmed, 
or  else  in  the  form  of  cloth,  as  they  may  elect.  The  system  is  explained 
in  describing  the  Austrian  cavalry. 

The  distinctive  marks  of  rank  are  as  in  the  cavalry.  It  maybe  repeated 
that  no  epaulettes  are  worn  by  the  infantry;  even  the  officers  are  without 
them. 

The  rations  and  cooking-utensils  are  as  for  the  cavalry;  the  kettle  is, 


THE    AUSTRIAN    INFANTRY.  67 

however,  for  a  mess  of  14  men,  and  they  are  carried  either  in  wagons  or 
on  pack-horses. 

Each  man  has  a  "  little  gamelle,"  like  those  of  the  French,  which  is 
attached  to  the  knapsack.  Bread  is  carried  either  under  the  flap  of  the 
knapsack  or  in  a  linen  haversack.  12  tin  canteens  are  carried  in  each 
platoon. 

Tents  are  not  used  in  the  field,  the  men  being  expected  to  construct 
such  temporary  shelters  as  the  material  at  hand  renders  possible;  in  camps 
of  instruction  tents  are  provided.  The  men  carry  no  blanket  in  the  field, 
— merely  the  overcoat. 

In  quarters  the  bedsteads  are  single,  and  of  iron ;  each  man  has  a  bed- 
sack",  pillow,  two  blankets,  and  a  pair  of  coarse  sheets ;  all  these  belong  to 
the  barracks,  and  are  in  charge  of  the  captain  inspector.  The  bedsacks 
are  filled  every  three  months.  During  the  day  the  bedsacks  are  kept 
down,  but  the  blankets,  &c.,  are  folded  at  the  head  of  the  bed.  Each 
man  has  a  rack  and  shelf  at  the  head  of  his  bed.  The  rooms  are  gene- 
rally dirty  and  filled  with  tobacco-smoke;  those  of  the  Polish  companies 
were  the  cleanest.  The  men  eat  in  their  rooms.  The  arms  and  accoutre- 
ments are  kept  in  the  corridors.    A  part  of  the'officers  live  in  the  barracks. 

PROPRIETORS    OF    REGIMENTS,    PROMOTION,    MARRIAGE,    INVALIDS,   ETC. 

The  "  proprietor"  of  a  regiment  confers  his  name  upon  it,  receives  about 
3150  per  month,  and  nominates  the  officers  up  to  the  grade  of  captain,  in- 
clusive. He  is  obliged  to  follow  the  ordinary  rules  of  appointment  and 
promotion,  but  decides  as  to  the  application  of  those  rules.  Promotion 
always  goes  by  seniority,  provided  the  senior  is  fit  for  his  new  duties;  it 
is  in  the  regiment  up  to  the  grade  of  colonel,  after  that  in  the  whole  army. 
The  senior  captains  and  field  officers  are  sometimes  transferred  to  other 
regiments  in  order  to  equalize  promotion.  Colonels  rank  in  the  whole 
army  by  seniority,  irrespective  of  corps,  and  are  promoted  according  to 
seniority,  if  competent;  if  not,  they  are  retired. 

An  officer  who  is  retired  after  five  years  receives  a  certain  pension ;  after 
ten  years'  service,  a  greater  one;  and  so  on  for  every  additional  five  years. 

Any  one  under  the  grade  of  general,  who  retires  after  thirty  years' 
service,  receives  the  full  pay  of  his  grade;  a  general  who  retires  after  fifty 
years'  service  receives  full  pay. 

The  various  medals,  decorations,  &c.,  carry  with  them  a  certain  salary, 
which  is  continued  during  the  life  of  the  recipient,  even  should  he  leave 
the  sendee,  and  is  given  to  his  widow  during  her  liffi;  there  is  no  other 
pension  than  this  for  soldiers. 

There  are  several  invalid-asylums  in  the  empire,  each  for  a  fixed  number 
of  officers  and  men;  the  officers  are  furnished  with  quarters,  fuel,  and 
attendance.     When  a  vacancy  occurs,  the  oldest  soldier  entitled  to  be 


66  THE   ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

goes  over  the  shako  and  visor;  when  this  is  put  on,  the  pompon  and 
eagle  are  removed,  and  put  inside  the  shako  in  the  top  lining. 

The  forage  cap  is  of  light-blue  cloth,  of  the  gig-top  shape ;  it  has  no 
visor,  but  two  flaps  of  cloth,  (which  can  be  turned  up,)  serving  as  ear- 
covers  in  cold  weather,  and  which  may  serve  as  substitutes  for  a  visor. 
The  men  are  all  provided  with  mittens  of  blue  cloth. 

The  frock-coat  is  of  excellent  thick  white  cloth;  the  buttons  white 
and  plain;  coat  lined  with  thick  linen;  facings  and  cuffs  different  for 
different  regiments. 

This  white  coat  always  looks  well,  and  the  officers  prefer  it  to  any  other 
color,  stating  that  it  is  very  easy  to  keep  it  clean  in  the  field,  by  washing 
and  pipe-clay. 

The  men  usually  wear  a  vest,  made  of  an  old  coat. 

The  pants  are  of  light-blue  cloth,  with  a  white  cord;  always  have 
pockets.  The  pants  of  the  Hungarian  and  Croat  infantry  fit  perfectly 
tight  to  the  legs. 

Gaiters  of  black  cloth. 

The  shoes  come  well  up  on  the  ankle;  the  men  put  nails  and  iron  heels 
upon  them. 

The  stock  black,  with  a  white  edge  on  top ;  it  has  a  bottom  flap. 

The  overcoat  is  of  gray  cloth,  with  a  large  rolling  collar;  it  is  made 
quite  loose.  All  guards  in  garrison  are  provided  with  special  overcoats 
for  the  sentinels. 

The  coat  and  pants  of  the  rifles  are  of  a  bluish  gray,  cut  like  those  of 
the  infantry;  but,  instead  of  the  shoulder-strap,  there  is  placed  at  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  a  raised  crescent-shaped  pad  of  cloth. 

Their  hat  is  of  felt,  turned  up  on  both  sides,  and  has  a  large  black 
plume  of  cocks'  feathers. 

The  overcoat  is  folded  in  a  long  roll,  and  strapped  to  the  top  and 
both  sides  of  the  knapsack.     Extra  shoes  are  tied  to  the  sides  of  the 


The  uniform  coat  is  always  carried  in  the  field;  no  extra  pants  carried. 

The  forage  cap  is  carried  in  a  small  pocket  on  the  front  of  the  knapsack. 

The  contents  of  the  knapsack  are :  1  pair  of  drawers,  1  shirt,  1  hand- 
kerchief, 1  pair  of  feet-wrappers,  (socks  not  being  used,)  and  the  usual 
brushes,  cleaning-utensils,  &c. 

The  clothing  is  issued  to  the  captains  either  made  up,  but  not  trimmed, 
or  else  in  the  form  of  cloth,  as  they  may  elect.  The  system  is  explained 
in  describing  the  Austrian  cavalry. 

The  distinctive  marks  of  rank  are  as  in  the  cavalry.  It  maybe  repeated 
that  no  epaulettes  are  worn  by  the  infantry;  even  the  officers  are  without 
them. 

The  rations  and  cooking-utensils  are  as  for  the  cavalry;  the  kettle  is, 


THE    AUSTRIAN    INFANTRY.  67 

however,  for  a  mess  of  14  men,  and  they  are  carried  either  in  wagons  or 
on  pack-horses. 

Each  man  has  a  "  little  gamelle,"  like  those  of  the  French,  which  is 
attached  to  the  knapsack.  Bread  is  carried  either  under  the  flap  of  the 
knapsack  or  in  a  linen  haversack.  12  tin  canteens  are  carried  in  each 
platoon. 

Tents  are  not  used  in  the  field,  the  men  being  expected  to  construct 
such  temporary  shelters  as  the  material  at  hand  renders  possible;  in  camps 
of  instruction  tents  are  provided.  The  men  carry  no  blanket  in  the  field, 
— merely  the  overcoat. 

In  quarters  the  bedsteads  are  single,  and  of  iron ;  each  man  has  a  bed- 
sack",  pillow,  two  blankets,  and  a  pair  of  coarse  sheets ;  all  these  belong  to 
the  barracks,  and  are  in  charge  of  the  captain  inspector.  The  bedsacks 
are  filled  every  three  months.  During  the  day  the  bedsacks  are  kept 
down,  but  the  blankets,  &c.,  are  folded  at  the  head  of  the  bed.  Each 
man  has  a  rack  and  shelf  at  the  head  of  his  bed.  The  rooms  are  gene- 
rally dirty  and  filled  with  tobacco-smoke;  those  of  the  Polish  companies 
were  the  cleanest.  The  men  eat  in  their  rooms.  The  arms  and  accoutre- 
ments are  kept  in  the  corridors.    A  part  of  the'officers  live  in  the  barracks. 

PROPRIETORS   OF   REGIMENTS,   PROMOTION,    MARRIAGE,    INVALIDS,  ETC. 

The  "  proprietor"  of  a  regiment  confers  his  name  upon  it,  receives  about 
§150  per  month,  and  nominates  the  officers  up  to  the  grade  of  captain,  in- 
clusive. He  is  obliged  to  follow  the  ordinary  rules  of  appointment  and 
promotion,  but  decides  as  to  the  application  of  those  rules.  Promotion 
always  goes  by  seniority,  provided  the  senior  is  fit  for  his  new  duties;  it 
is  in  the  regiment  up  to  the  grade  of  colonel,  after  that  in  the  whole  army. 
The  senior  captains  and  field  officers  are  sometimes  transferred  to  other 
regiments  in  order  to  equalize  promotion.  Colonels  rank  in  the  whole 
army  by  seniority,  irrespective  of  corps,  and  are  promoted  according  to 
seniority,  if  competent;  if  not,  they  are  retired. 

An  officer  who  is  retired  after  five  years  receives  a  certain  pension ;  after 
tew  years'  service,  a  greater  one;  and  so  on  for  every  additional  five  years. 

Any  one  under  the  grade  of  general,  who  retires  after  thirty  years' 
service,  receives  the  full  pay  of  his  grade;  a  general  who  retires  after  fifty 
years'  service  receives  full  pay. 

The  various  medals,  decorations,  &c.,  carry  with  them  a  certain  salary, 
which  is  continued  during  the  life  of  the  recipient,  even  should  he  leave 
the  service,  and  is  given  to  his  widow  during  her  life;  there  "is  no  other 
pension  than  this  for  soldiers. 

There  are  several  invalid-asylums  in  the  empire,  each  for  a  fixed  number 
of  officers  and  men;  the  officers  are  furnished  with  quarters,  fuel,  and 
attendance.     When  a  vacancy  occurs,  the  oldest  soldier  entitled  to  be 


68  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

retired  receives  the  place;  if  a  soldier  is  disabled  by  wounds,  &c.,  he  must 
return  to  his  friends  and  await  his  turn  for  the  asylum. 

Retired  and  disabled  soldiers  receive  the  preference  in  all  government 
employments,  such  as  on  railways,  as  orderlies  in  public  offices,  in  the 
service  of  the  posts,  &c. 

Eight  years  is  the  term  of  service  for  all  arms.  The  men  are  drawn 
by  conscription,  only-sons  being  exempted.  In  1855  and  1856  the  author- 
ized price  for  a  substitute  was  about  $300.  A  man  who  re-enlists,  after 
eight  years'  service,  may  demand  his  discharge  at  any  time. 

Men  sent  home  upon  a  reduction  of  the  army  are  liable  to  be  recalled 
at  any  time  until  their  eight  years  are  out;  the  time  thus  spent  at  home 
counts  in  the  eight  years,  but  they  receive  no  pay  while  absent  from 
their  regiments. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  men  are  not  permitted  to  marry;  but  a  certain 
number  of  laundresses  are  allowed  each  company.  Under  no  pretext  can 
more  than  one-sixth  of  the  officers  of  any  regiment  or  special  corps  be 
married.  When  any  officer  desires  to  marry,  he  makes  an  application, 
and  receives  permission  in  his  turn  when  the  first  vacancy  occurs,  irre- 
spective of  rank.  Before  he  is  permitted  to  marry,  an  officer  must  de- 
posit in  the  hands  of  the  government  a  certain  sum,  diflPerent  for  the 
various  grades  and  corps.  He  receives  the  legal  interest  of  this  money 
every  month. 

Privates  are  placed  on  courts-martial  for  the  trial  of  their  peers.  Not 
more  than  100  blows  can  be  given;  the  usual  manner  of  inflicting  them 
is  on  the  seat,  the  pants  being  kept  on.  Flogging  is  rarely  resorted  to, 
and  only  with  hardened  characters  and  for  heinous  offences.  For  deser- 
tion, the  penalty  is  flogging  for  the  1st  and  2d  offences,  death  for  the  3d. 
An  officer  on  detachment  has  great  powers  in  regard  to  the  infliction  of 
punishment. 

As  far  as  possible,  especially  in  time  of  war,  offences  are  tried  and 
punished  within  24  hours  of  the  arrest  of  the  offender.  Duty  on  courts- 
martial  is  a  matter  of  regular  detail,  according  to  the  roster. 

The  money  for  the  pay,  &c.,  of  the  men  is  drawn  by  the  captain;  he 
issues  the  ration-money  every  day  to  the  first  sergeant,  the  balance  every 
five  days.  The  first  sergeant  turns  over  the  ration-money  for  each  squad  to 
its  corporal,  who  makes  the  purchases ;  in  doing  this,  he  is  always  accom- 
panied by  one  or  two  men  selected  by  the  squad. 

The  captain  makes  out  the  requisition  for  the  money;  this  is  examined 
and  approved  by  the  "war  commissary,''  whose  signature  constitutes  the 
order  upon  the  military  chest  for  the  payment  to  the  captain.  The 
captain  draws  the  pay  of  the  officers  on  the  same  requisition.  The  com- 
missary, who  gives  the  order,  never  has  charge  of  the  money,  his  only 
duty  being  to  examine  and  verify  the  accounts. 


THE   PRUSSIAN    INFANTRY.  69 

When  a  man  is  in  the  hospital  his  pay  ceases,  arid  he  is  struck  off  the 
company  pay-roll,  being  supplied  with  food  by  the  hospital. 

Since  the  affairs  of  1848  and  1849,  the  organization  and  instruction  of 
the  Austrian  infantry,  as  well  as  that  of  the  other  arms  of  service,  have 
been  much  improved.  In  the  next  war  in  which  they  are  engaged  the 
beneficial  effect  will  no  doubt  be  perceived.  The  rifles  are  a  fine  set  of 
men,  and  will  probably  hold  their  own  against  any  similar  troops  with 
whom  they  may  be  brought  in  contact. 

THE  PRUSSIAN  INFANTRY. 

The  general  organization  of  the  regular  army  and  the  landwehr,  the 
term  of  service,  &c.,  are  explained  in  the  report  upon  the  Prussian  cavalry. 
The  infantry  consists  of: 

(a)  The  standing  army — 

Battalions. 

4  regii;ients  of  guards 12 

1  reserve  regiment  of  the  guards 2 

2  battalions  of  rifles  of  the  guards... 2 

32  regiments  of  infantry  of  the  line 96 

8  regiments  of  reserve  infantry 16 

8  combined  reserve  battalions 8 

8  battalions  of  rifles 8 

144 

(6)  The  landwehr  of  the  1st  levy — 

4  landwehr  regiments  of  the  guard 12 

32  provincial  landwehr  regiments 96 

8  landwehr  battalions  of  the  reserve  regiments 8 

116  116 

(c)  Same  for  landwehr  of  2d  levy 116 

376 
In  time  of  war  the  following  is  the  general  division  of  the  infantry : 

A.    INFANTRY   DISPOSABLE    FOR    ACTIVE    OPERATIONS    IN    THE    FIELD. 

(1)  The  guards — 

4  regiments  of  infantry  of  the  guard 12 

1  reserve  regiment  of  the  guards 2 

2  battalions  of  rifles  of  the  guards 2 

(2)  Infantry  of  the  line — 

32  regiments  of  infantry  of  the  line 96 


70  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

8  regiments  of  reserve  infantry,  combined  with  their  8  battalions 

of  the  landwehr,  forming  8  regiments  of  3  battalions  each...     24 
8  battalions  of  rifles 8 

144 
(3)  Landwehr  of  the  1st  levy — 

4  guard  and  32  provincial  regiments 108 

Total  disposable  for  field  operations 252 

B.  DEPOT  TROOPS. 

(1)  For  each  infantry  brigade  of  6  battalions,  (formed  by  the 

union  of  a  regiment  of  the  standing  army  with  the  corre- 
sponding regiment  of  landwehr,)  there  is  a  depot  battalion 
^of  6  companies,  (1  company  for  each  battalion ;)  the  com- 
bined reserve  battalions  form  the  nucleus  of  these  depot 
battalions 36 

(2)  10  depot  companies  for  the  10  rifle  battalions 2^ 

Total  depot  battalions 38^ 

(c)  Landwehr  of  the  2d  levy 116 

Total  battalions  in  time  of  war 406J 

On  the  war  footing  each  battalion  numbers  1,002  men,  exclusive  of 
officers  and  the  train. 

In  time  of  peace  the  strength  of  each  company  is  as  follows :  1  captain, 
1  first  lieutenant,  3  second  lieutenants,  1  orderly  sergeant,  1  ensign,  3 
sergeants,  12  corporals,  10  lance  corporals,  4  musicians,  and  125  privates. 
In  war  the  number  of  privates  is  increased  to  219;  making  the  strength 
of  the  company  250,  exclusive  of  officers,  and  that  of  the  battalion  1,002, 
including  the  drum  major  and  battalion  clerk. 

For  each  battalion  there  are :  one  field  officer  in  command,  who  is  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel or  major,  a  battalion  adjutant,  with  the  rank  of  second 
lieutenant,  and  two  supernumerary  captains. 

On  the  regimental  staff"  there  are :  1  colonel,  1  regimental  adjutant,  1 
regimental  surgeon,  sometimes  a  supernumerary  field  officer,  and  1  regi- 
mental clerk. 

In  addition,  each  battalion  has  1  treasurer,  2  or  3  surgeons,  and  1 
armorer. 

The  regimental  bands  of  the  guards  consist  of  48  men;  those  of  the 
regiments  of  the  line,  of  only  10  men. 

In  time  of  peace  the  organization  of  army  corps  is  according  to  pro- 
vinces. 


THE    PRUSSIAN    INFANTRY.  71 

In  war  tlie  active  army  forms  9  army  corps,  viz. :  1  of  the  guards  and 
8  of  the  line. 

The  corresponding  regiments  of  the  line  and  the  first  levy  of  the  land- 
wehr  are  brigaded  together,  i.e.  the  8th  regiment  of  the  line  and  the  8th 
regiment  of  landwehr  form  1  brigade  of  6  battalions. 

An  army  corps,  on  the  war  establishment,  consists  of:  2  infantry  divi- 
sions, 1  cavalry  division,  the  reserve  artillery,  and  a  division  of  pioneers. 

(«)  Each  infantry  division  consists  of  2  infantry  brigades,  1  regiment 
of  cavalry,  and  2  foot  batteries.  A  battalion  of  rifles  is  attached  to  one 
of  the  divisions. 

(h)  The  cavalry  division  consists  of  6  regiments  of  cavalry  and  2  bat- 
teries of  horse  artillery.  Four  regiments  of  cavalry  of  the  line  and  four 
regiments  of  landwehr  cavalry  compose  the  cavalry  of  an  ,army  corps. 
Special  cavalry  corps  are  formed  only  in  case  of  necessity. 

(c)  The  reserve  artillery  consists  of  4  foot  batteries  and  1  horse  bat- 
tery; this  is  commanded  by  a  field  officer. 

(cZ)  A  division  of  pioneers,  generally  with  at  least  one  ponton  train,  is 
attached  to  each  army  corps. 

The  order  of  battle  of  an  active  army  corps  is  as  follows : 

Advanced  guard. — One  infantry  brigade,  (6  battalions,)  1  cavalry  regi- 
ment, and  8  guns. 

3Iain  hod 7/. — One  infantry  division,  (12  battalions,)  1  cavalry  regi- 
ment, and  21  guns. 

Reserve. — One  infantry  brigade,  (6  battalions,)  1  rifle  battalion,  and  8 
guns;  the  cavalry  division,  (24  squadrons,)  the  reserve  artillery,  6  bat- 
teries, (48  guns,)  the  pioneer  division. 

Total  of  an  army  corps  :  Men. 

25  battalions 25,000 

32  squadrons 4,800 

88  guns 2,000 

1  division  of  pioneers 500 

32,300 

The  nine  army  corps  consist  of  226  battalions,  228  squadrons,  792 
guns,  and  about  4,500  of  the  technical  troops. 

The  military  staflf  of  an  active  army  corps  consists  of: 

(a)  The  general  commanding.  General  staff":  1  general  as  chief,  1 
field  officer,  1  captain.  Aides-de-camp :  1  captain  of  infantry,  1  captain 
of  cavalry,  2  lieutenants.     Engineers  :  1  field  officer  and  1  captain. 

(6)  Two  generals  commanding  the  infantry  divisions,  one  general 
commanding  the  cavaliy  division.     General   staff":   in  each  division,  1 


72  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

field  officer,  or  1  captain.  Aides-de-camp :  in  each  infantry  division,  1 
captain  of  infantry  and  1  lieutenant;  in  each  cavalry  division,  1  captain 
of  cavalry  and  1  lieutenant. 

(c)  Four  brigadier-generals  of  infantry,  two  brigadier-generals  of 
cavalry. 

Each  general  of  brigade  has  1  lieutenant  as  aide-de-camp. 

A  permanent  guard  for  head-quarters  is  detailed  from  the  reserve 
squadrons  and  battalions  of  the  landwehr,  and  consists  of  1  officer,  5 
non-commissioned  officers,  and  37  privates  of  cavalry,  10  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  42  privates  of  infantry. 

The  administration  of  an  active  army  corps  consists  of: 

(a)  The  intendancy,  comprising  the  intendancy  of  the  corps,  and, 
under  it,  oye  section  of  the  intendancy  for  each  division,  and  one  for 
the  artillery  reserve. 

(6)  The  military  chest  of  the  corps,  with  four  6-horse  wagons. 

(c)  The  commissariat  officers,  consisting  of  1  chief  commissary  and  1 
commissary  for  each  of  the  3  divisions  and  the  reserve  artillery,  as  well 
as  1  in  charge  of  the  bakeries. 

(c?)  The  provision  trains,  organized  as  a  battalion,  and  comprising:  1. 
The  staff  of  the  train  battalion,  with  one  2-horse  wagon.  2.  Five  pro- 
vision columns,  consisting  of  five  6-horse  wagons  and  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  4-horse  wagons.  3.  A  field  bakery  column,  with  five  4-horse 
wagons.  4.  A  horse  depot  with  seventy-five  spare  horses,  and  a  2-horse 
wagon  for  papers. 

(e)  The  field  hospital,  consisting  of:  1.  A  main  field  hospital  for  1,200 
invalids.     2.  Three. flying  hospitals,  each  for  200  invalids. 

(/)  The  military  post-office,  consisting  of:  1.  One  postmaster.  2.  A 
post-office  for  each  of  the  three  divisions  and  the  artillery  reserve. 

Total  number  of  wagons  of  the  administration  from  a  to  /-^ 

9  6-horse  wagons. 

204  4-horse  wagons. 

41  2-horse  wagons. 

Total 254  wagons. 

(<;)  The  chief  surgeon  of  the  corps. 

(Ji)  The  judge  advocate's  department,  consisting  of:  1.  A  judge  advo- 
cate for  the  corps.  2.  Six  judges  advocate  of  division,  i.e.  one  for  each 
infantry  brigade,  one  for  the  cavalry  division,  and  one  for  the  artillery 
reserve. 

(i)  Seven  chaplains,  i.e.  one  for  each  infantry  brigade,  one  for  the 
cavalry  division,  one  for  the  artillery  reserve,  and  one  for  the  hospitals. 


THE    PRUSSIAN    INFANTRY.  73 

The  allowance  for  the  transportation  of  baggage,  &c.,  is  as  follows : 
A.  A  battalion  of  infantry- is  provided  with — 

1.  One  4:-horse  wagon  for  offiAxrs'  baggage. 

Pounds. 

(ff)  Adjutant's  desk 40 

(6)  Mess-chest  of  field  officers 40 

(c)  22  officers'  portmanteaus,  at  61  pounds,  and  1  at  102  pounds..  1,444 

id)  Armorer's  tools 225 

(e)  Surgeon's  baggage  and  instruments 60 

Total  weight 1,809 

2.  Oifie  4:-horse  equipment  wagon. 

(a)  Money-chest 306 

(i)  Treasurer's  books,  &c 40 

(c)  Spare  articles  of  equipment,  shoemakers'  and  tailors'  tools,  &c.  1,305 

(c^)  Surgeon's  baggage  and  instruments 60 

Total  weight 1,711 

3.  One  2-horse  medicine  cart. 

(a)  Surgeon's   baggage,  i.e.  60  pounds  for   portmanteau  of  the 

battalion  surgeon,  and  40  pounds  for  medical  books 100 

(b)  Chests  of  medicines,  bandages,  &c 257 

Total  weight 357 

4.  Four  company  pack-animals^  each  carrying — 

(a)  Mess-chest  of  company  officers 60 

(6)  Blankets  for  sick  men 45 

(c)  Overcoats  of  the  four  lieutenants '. 18^ 

(f?)  Baggage  of  the  orderly  sergeant 20 

(e)  Money,  &c.,  when  on  detachment 50 

Total  load  of  each  animal 193^ 

The  captains  carry  their  overcoats  on  their  own  horses. 

The  normal  load  of  a  4-horse  wagon  is 1,836 

The  normal  load  of  a  2-horse  wagon  is 816 

The  normal  load  of  a  pack-animal  is 204 

Exclusive  of  cleaning-utensils,  forage,  &c. 


74  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

B.  A  battalion  of  rifles  is  provided  with — 

One  2-horse  equipment^wagon.  pounds 

Money-chest ., 306 

Treasurer's  books,  &c 40 

Adjutant's  desk •• 40 

Officers'  portmanteaus 225 

Armorer's  tools 180 

.Total  weight ^ 791 

One  2-horse  medicine  cart,  as  for  the  infantry  battalions. 

Each  company  has  4  pack-animals,  on  which  it  packs — 

Officers'  mess-chest 60 

Officers'  portmanteaus 310 

Spare  equipments,  &c 250 

Blankets  for  sick  men 45 

Overcoats  of  officers 18J 

Baggage  of  orderly  sergeant 20 

ige  of  surgeons,  hospital  attendants,  &c 60 


Total  load  of  the  4  pack-animals  of  a  company 763  2 

Tactics,  instruction,  &c. — The  rifles  are  formed  in  2  ranks,  all  other 
infantry  in  3  ranks.  The  largest  men  are  in  the  front  rank,  the  most 
active  men  and  best  shots  in  the  third  rank ;  these  men  being  habitually 
employed  as  skirmishers.  The  distance  between  the  ranks  is  2',  mea- 
sured from  the  back  of  the  front  rank  to  the  breast  of  the  next  rank. 
The  company  is  divided  into  2  platoons ;  platoons  of  20  files  and  upwards 
into  half  platoons ;  the  latter  into  sections.  Platoons  of  less  than  20  files 
are  divided  only  into  sections.  The  section  consists  of  not  more  than  6 
nor  less  than  4  files.  In  a  detached  company  the  officers,  &c.,  are  posted 
as  follows :  the  captain  at  one-third  platoon  distance  in  front  of  the 
centre ;  the  1st  lieutenant  commands  the  2d  platoon,  and  is  posted  on  its 
right  in  the  front  rank )  the  senior  2d  lieutenant  commands  the  1st  pla- 
toon, and  is  posted  on  its  right  in  the  front  rank ;  the  next  2d  lieutenant 
is  on  the  left  of  the  2d  platoon,  in  the  front  rank ',  the  junior  2d  lieu- 
tenant is  4  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre  of  the  1st  platoon ;  the  orderly  ser- 
geant is  in  the  rank  of  file-closers,  (2  paces  behind  the  rear  rank,)  in  rear 
of  the  2d  file  from  the  right  of  the  company ;  the  right  guides  of  the  pla- 
toons are  in  the  rear  rank;  the  left  guides  in  the  rank  of  file-closers, 
behind  the  2d  files  from  the  left  of  their  platoons ;  the  remainder  of  the 
non-commissioned  officers  are  at  equal  intervals  in  the  rank  of  file-closers ; 
the  field  music,  12  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre  of  the  company,  except  on 


THE   PRUSSIAN  INFANTRY.  75 

parade,  when  they  are  2  paces  from  the  right  of  the  company,  on  the 
alignment  of  the  centre  rank. 

In  a  hattallon  the  platoons  are  numbered  from  1  to  8,  in  a  regular 
series  from  right  to  left.   . 

The  color-guard,  consisting  of  the  color-bearer,  who  is  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  and  5  color-corporals,  is  posted  between  the  4th  and  5th 
platoons. 

The  commander  of  the  battalion,  with  a  musician,  is  posted  at  com- 
pany distance  in  front  of  the  centre ;  the  adjutant,  12  paces  in  rear  of  the 
centre. 

Each  captain  commands  the  1st  platoon  of  his  own  company,  and  is 
posted  in  the  front  rank  on  its  right;  the  1st  lieutenants  are  posted  as 
explained  for  a  detached  company ;  the  2d  lieutenant  of  the  4th  company 
is  on  the  left  of  the  front  rank  of  the  battalion ;  all  the  other  2d  lieu- 
tenants are  in  the  rank  of  commissioned  file-closers,  (4  paces  behind  the 
rear  rank,)  in  rear  of  their  respective  platoons;  the  non-commissioned 
officers  are  posted  as  prescribed  for.  a  detached  company. 

All  the  field  music  of  the  battalion  is  united,  and  posted  4  paces  on  the 
left  of  the  adjutant;  the  band  is  4  paces  on  his  right.  On  parade,  all 
the  music  is  on  the  right  of  the  battalion.  The  length  of  step  is  29" ; 
the  rate  of  march,  108  steps  per  minute,  except  in  the  bayonet  charge, 
when  it  is  120.  The  march  is  steady,  but  strikes  one  as  being  stiff  and 
awkward  ;  for  the  foot  is  raised  very  high,  the  toe  much  pointed,  the 
knee  much  stifi"ened,  and  the  foot  brought  down  with  a  shock ;  the  noise 
thus  made  by  a  column  is  something  quite  extraordinary. 

The  manual  of  arms  presents  nothing  peculiar  beyond  the  fact  of 
bayonets  never  being  unfixed,  and  the  method  of  loading  the  needle  gun. 
The  piece  is  very  generally  carried  at  a  slope  arms,  or  a  sergeant's  carry. 

The  minimum  of  target-practice  is,  that  each  man  must  fire  one  shot 
every  week  ;  but  this  minimum  is  far  exceeded. 

The  individual  carriage  and  instruction  of  the  Prussian  infantry  are 
excellent. 

The  formation  into  "  company  columns" — i.e.  forming  a  third  platoon 
of  the  men  of  the  third  rank,  for  skirmishing  and  light  infantry  service — 
is  employed,  and  does  not  difi'er  in  any  essential  particular  from  the 
system  explained  in  the  report  upon  the  Russian  infantry. 

The  chain  of  skirmishers  consists  of  pairs  of  men.  The  system  is  ftill 
and  good,  but  presents  nothing  peculiar,  x 

The  movements  of  a  battalion,  its  formation  in  column,  &c.,  are  habi- 
tually by  platoon. 

The  battalion  advancing  in  line,  at  the  command  "  prepare  to  charge," 
the  battjilion  at  once  takes  the  gait  of  120  steps  per  minute,  the  colors 
fall  back  into  the  front  rank,  the  commander  rides  to  the  rear;  at  12 


76  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

paces  from  the  enemy  he  gives  the  command  "charge  bayonets — charge," 
on  which  the  front  and  centre  ranks  bring  down  their  pieces,  and  all 
charge  with  the  "  hurrah." 

In  the  close  column  the  distance  between  subdivisions  is  4',  measured 
from  the  front  rank  of  one  subdivision  to  the  rear  rank  of  the  one  next  in 
front  of  it. 

The  double  column  on  the  centre  platoons  is  the  column  of  attack,  and 
the  habitual  column  of  manoeuvre.  In  this  the  distances  are  as  in  close 
column,  except  that  two  paces  clear  distance  is  left  between  the  second 
and  third  subdivisions ;  the  music  is  in  this  distance. 

Square  is  formed  from  the  double  column  on  the  centre.  At  the  com- 
mand "  form  square,"  the  3d  and  6th  platoons  close  up  to  2'  from  the 
4th  and  5th,  the  1st  and  8th  do  the  same  with  regard  to  the  2d  and 
7th;  the  4  rear  platoons  face  about;  the  color-bearer  retires  to  the 
centre  of  the  square ;  the  three  outer  flank  files  of  the  2d,  3d,  6th,  and 
7th  platoons  face  outwards,  these  short  sides  of  the  square  being  com- 
pleted by  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  men  of  the  rear  rank  of . 
the  central  platoons,  formed  3  deep ;  in  the  same  manner  the  intervals 
between  the  4th  and  5th,  the  1st  and  8th,  platoons  are  filled.  If  either  of 
the  short  sides  is  attacked,  then  the  3  flank  files  of  the  head  and  rear  of 
the  square,  on  that  side,  face  in  that  direction. 

The  square  being  formed,  the  command  "  square — ready  !"  is  given ; 
upon  this  the  front-rank  men  of  all  the  faces  charge  bayonets,  the  2d  and 
3d  ranks  come  to  a  ready. 

The  firing  is  usually  by  volleys,  of  one  rank  at  a  time ;  no  rank  fires 
without  the  special  order  of  the  commander. 

The  interval  between  consecutive  battalions  is  20  paces. 

A  brigade  is  formed  in  two  or  more  lines,  the  usual  distance  being  150 
paces. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Prussian  Infantry  Tactics,  from  the 
school  of  the  recruit  to  that  of  the  brigade,  inclusive,  form  only  one  small 
volume  of  228  pages. 

ARMS   AND   ACCOUTREMENTS. 

x\ll  the  regiments  of  the  guards,  and  at  least  one  battalion  of  every 
regiment  of  the  line,  are  armed  with  the  "needle  gun,"  (ziindnadel- 
gurche;)  the  rest  of  the  infantry  of  the  line  have  the  percussion  musket; 
the  rifles  of  the  guard  have  a  "  needle  rifle,"  (ziindnadelbuchsen ;)  the 
rifles  of  the  line  have  the  tige  rifle. 

The  needle  gun  is  rifled,  and  loads  at  the  breech.  An  aperture  exists 
in  the  upper  surface  of  the  barrel,  near  the  breech ;  this  is  opened  and 
the  cartridge  slipped  in  horizontally.  In  the  cartridge,  near  the  base  of 
the  ball,  there  is  a  pellet  of  fulminating  powder ;  behind  the   cartridge 


THE    PRUSSIAN    INFANTRY.  77 

there  is  a  long  sharp  needle  in  the  axis  of  the  barrel ;  this  is  connected 
with  a  spiral  spring.  Upon  pulling  the  trigger  the  spring  is  liberated, 
and  drives  the  needle  through  the  cartridge  into  the  fulminating  com- 
pound. 

The  target^practice  with  the  needle  gun  is  carried  up  to  1,000  paces, 
and  seven  shots  per  minute  can  be  fired. 

There  is  no  other  belt  than  a  waist-belt ;  to  this  the  sabre  and  cartridge 
boxes  are  attached.  There  is  no  bayonet-scabbard,  the  bayonet  never 
being  unfixed,  except  in  the  case  of  the  rifles,  who  have  a  sword  bayonet. 

The  cartridge-boxes  hold  20  rounds  each,  and  are  6"  X  3"  X  2" ;  in 
the  field  each  man  carries  two,  in  front  of  the  body,  and  on  each  side  of 
the  belt-plate ;  in  garrison  but  one  is  carried,  and  that  in  front  of  the 
middle  of  the  body.  The  cap-pouch  is  on  the  front  of  the  box,  under 
the  flap.  Two  tin  boxes,  (2f"  X  1"  X  l"j)  each  containing  forty  caps, 
are  carried  in  the  knapsack. 

In  each  company  one  man  carries  on  his  waist-belt  two  boxes  (65"  X 
4"  X  3")  containing  medicines  in  vials ;  this  man  carries  no  musket,  and 
is  under  the  direction  of  the  surgeon.  Patterns  of  these  boxes  were  ob- 
tained by  the  commission,  and  are  in  possession  of  the  War  Department. 
Each  soldier  carries  a  small  supply  of  lint  in  his  knapsack. 

The  knapsack  is  of  cowskin,  and  as  shown  in  the  preceding  figures. 

TTie  overcoat  is  either  strapped  to  the  top  and  sides  of  the  knapsack, 
as  explained  for  the  Austrian  infantry,  or  is  rolled  in  its  full  length,  the 
ends  fastened  together  by  a  strap,  and  the  whole  thrown  over  one  shoulder, 
crossing  the  back,  and  passing  under  the  other  arm. 

Of  the  four  musicians,  two  are  drummers  and  two  fifers ;  each  fifer  has 
also  a  bugle. 

The  drums  are  18"  in  diameter  and  4"  deep, — including  the  rims,  6' 
deep.     Each  drummer  has  a  leather  apron  on  his  left  thigh. 

UNIFORM. 

The  uniform  of  the  officers  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  Russians, 
except  in  color. 

The  helmet  is  worn  by  .all  the  infantry,  except  the  rifles,  whose  head- 
dress is  like  that  of  the  Austrian  rifles.  The  frock-coat  is  universally 
worn  ;  for  the  infantry  it  is  dark  blue,  for  the  rifles  green ;  the  distinc- 
tions of  army  corps,  regiments,  grade,  &c.,  are  found  on  the  collars  and 
cuffs ;  the  sword-knot  is  also  a  distinction  of  grade,  and  of  companies  in 
the  same  battalion.  The  overcoat  is  of  dark  gray,  without  cape,  and  with 
a  standing  collar.  The  shoulder-straps  on  the  frock-coats  and  overcoats 
of  the  men  are  of  the  Russian  pattern. 

The  material  of  the  clothing  is  very  good,  and  it  is  well  made  up. 
Each  man  has  a  pair  of  cloth  mittens  and  a  pair  of  ear-covers. 


THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


Prussian  Knapsack. 


The  hooks  0  hook  to  the  inside  belt.     G  is  an  iron  pin,  by  means  of  which  the  shoulder- 
straps  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened.     A  B  is  the  camp-kettle. 


THE    PRUSSIAN    INFANTRY 


79 


Prussian  Knapsack. 


80  THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 

The  contents  of  the  knapsack  are :  1  pair  of  cloth  pants,  1  overcoat,  1 
forage  cap,  1  pair  of  shoes,  1  pair  of  extra  soles,  1  shirt,  1  pair  of  drawers, 
brushes,  shaving-materials,  and  20  rounds  of  cartridges;  weight  of  the 
whole  about  20  pounds.  The  whole  load  of  the  men,  including  arms, 
accoutrements,  ammunition,  &c.,  &c.,  is  somewhat  less  than  60  pounds. 
All  other  essential  points  in  relation  to  the  clothing  are  given  in  the 
report  upon  the  Prussian  cavalry. 

RATIONS. 

The  rations,  cooking-utensils,  &c.,  are  the  same  as  in  the  cavalry.  The 
bread  used  by  infantry  and  cavalry  alike  in  this  service  is  the  brown  or 
"  black"  rye  bread  of  Germany. 

The  haversacks  are  of  linen,  and  are  12''  square ;  no  canteen  is  car- 
ried f  instead  of  it,  a  small  flask  of  brandy  in  the  haversack. 

QUARTERS. 

In  quarters  the  men  are  divided  into  squads  of  from  18  to  20  men, 
each  under  a  corporal. 

As  a  general  rule,  each  squad  has  two  rooms,  in  one  of  which  all  the 
beds  are  stowed  during  the  day,  the  other  being  used  for  eating,  reading, 
lounging,  smoking,  &c.  This  room  is  provided  with  tables  and  benches ; 
at  night  some  of  the  beds  are  placed  in  this  second  room. 

The  bedsteads  are  single  and  of  iron,  put  together  with  nuts  and 
screws ;  the  tops  of  the  corner  posts  are  hollowed  out,  so  that  the  feet  of 
another  bedstead  may  be  set  in  them  in  the  daytime,  thus  placing  one 
above  another  to  save  space. 

The  bottom  or  floor  of  the  bed  consists  of  boards,  placed  longitudinally 
on  the  cross-pieces ;  ap  inclined  board  at  the  head  of  the  bed  renders  a 
thin  pillow  sufficient. 

The  bedding  consists  of  a  pillow,  bedsack  stuff"ed  with  straw,  and  a 
pair  of  blankets  in  a  check  case ;  the  bedding  is  not  folded  up  during  the 
day.  The  bedding  belongs  to  the  barrack.  Each  man  has  a  cupboard, 
with  a  lock  and  key,  in  which  he  keeps  his  rations  and  efi"ects. 

In  the  room  is  a  list  of  the  men  quartered  there,  with  the  name  of  the 
orderly;  also  an  inventory  of  all  public  property  in  the  quarters. 

On  the  outside  of  the  door,  which  is  numbered,  is  a  board  or  paper, 
inscribed,  e.g.j  as  follows  : — 

2d  battalion. 

10th  infantry  regiment. 

8th  company. 

5th  squad. 

The  inspector  of  each  barrack  is  a  retired  non-commissioned  officer ;  he 
is  responsible  for  the  furniture,  bedding,  &c.,  of  the  officers  and  men 


THE    PRUSSIAN    INFANTRY.  81 

living  in  that  barrack,  and  reports  to  the  inspector  of  the  post,  who  is  a 
retired  officer;  the  latter  is  under  the  orders  of  the  intendant.  Tables, 
sofas,  chairs,  bureaus,  bedsteads,  and  bedding,  are  furnished  to  every 
officer ;  they  paper  their  own  quarters,  and  paint  them  if  the  ordinary 
government  allowance  is  not  sufficient. 

FIELD  SERVICE. 

The  organization  of  an  army  corps  in  the  field,  and  its  allowance  of 
transportation,  have  already  been  given. 

Each  captain  of  infantry  is  allowed  a  horse ;  he  is  only  permitted  to 
ride  on  the  march ;  no  lieutenant  is,  under  any  circumstances,  permitted 
to  ride. 

The  ordinary  march  is  14  miles  in  five  hours,  sometimes  23^  miles  in 
eight  hours.  Usually  a  short  halt  is  made  about  fifteen  minutes  after 
starting,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  march  a  halt  of  about  an  hour ;  if  the 
march  is  a  very  long  one,  (more  than  20  miles,  for  instance,)  two  halts 
of  an  hour  each  are  made.  On  the  march  the  piece  is  carried  at  will,  on 
either  shoulder.  No  tents  or  shelter  tents  are  used ;  the  men  hut  them- 
selves as  best  they  can. 

The  normal  camp  of  a  regiment  is  in  six  rows  of  huts,  perpendicular 
to  the  front  of  the  camp;  two  companies  being  in  each  row,  and  there 
being  one  street  for  each  battalion. 

Each  platoon  has  its  stacks  of  arms  at  the  head  of  its  row  of  huts ;  the 
huts  of  the  officers  are  in  the  middle  of  those  of  the  men  of  their  com- 
panies, in  the  same  row. 

The  latrines  are  in  rear  of  the  whole  camp. 

The  bivouac  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  Russian. 

In  regard  to  the  landwehr,  it  is  worthy  of  mention,  that  in  the  land- 
wehr  arsenals  complete  sets  of  clothing,  arms,  and  accoutrements  are  kept 
on  hand,  so  that  a  few  minutes  will  suffice  to  supply  the  men,  who  are 
already  drilled.  A  close  study  of  the  landwehr  system  is  well  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  our  own  officers;  the  adoption  of  some  similar  system 
would  go  far  towards  rendering  our  own  country  unassailable. 

I  desire  to  call  the  attention  of  our  officers  to  the  rich  and  interest- 
ing field  of  study  offered  by  the  Prussian  military  works ;  any  one  who 
will  provide  our  service  and  the  country  with  such  valuable  aids  as 
'^  Witzleben,  Mims,  Kalkstein,  Scharnhorst,"  &c.,  will  at  least  have  the 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  he  has  conferred  incalculable  benefit  upon 
the  service. 


82  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

THE  SARDINIAN  INFANTRY. 

This  consists  of  20  regiments  of  infantry  and  10  battalions  of  ber- 
saglieri,  (rifles.) 

Each  regiment  of  infantry  has  4  battalions,  of  4  companies  each  j  the 
staflf  of  a  regiment  consists  of  1  colonel,  4  majors,  2  adjutants,  1  pay- 
master, 1  clothing  officer,  1  chaplain,  3  surgeons,  2  staff  quartermasters, 
1  drum  major,  1  quartermaster,  and  3  sergeants  of  the  train;  3  corporals, 
4  battalion  clerks,  3  battalion  drummers,  1  chief  trumpeter,  1  master 
carpenter,  1  band-master,  2  armorers,  1  master  tailor,  1  master  shoe- 
maker, 26  musicians,  8  carpenters,  and  2  sutlers. 

Each  company  of  infantry  consists  of  1  captain,  2  lieutenants,  1  orderly 
sergeant,  4  sergeants,  9  corporals,  2  drummers,  8  lance  corporals ;  in  time 
of  peace  52,  and  on  the  war  establishment  126,  privates. 

The  corps  of  rifles  consists  of  10  battalions  and  1  depot  company,  each 
battalion  having  4  companies. 

The  stafi"  of  the  corps  consists  of  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  10 
majors,  1  intendant,  1  clothing  officer,  (a  captain,)  1  paymaster,  1  sub- 
intendant,  1  quartermaster,  2  lieutenants,  1  regimental  adjutant,  10 battalion 
adjutants,  10  surgeons,  and  3  lieutenants  for  the  depot  company.  Each 
company  consists  of  1  captain,  2  lieutenants,  1  orderly  sergeant,  4  ser- 
geants, 1  trumpeter,  11  corporals,  76  privates  in  time  of  peace,  and  133 
in  time  of  war.  The  depot  company  has  but  1  orderly  sergeant,  2  ser- 
geants, 5  corporals,  and  30  privates. 

The  non-commissioned  staff  of  the  rifle  corps  consists  of  10  battalion 
quartermasters,  1  quartermaster  and  14  sergeants  of  the  train,  11  chief 
trumpeters,  11  battalion  clerks,  4  corporals  of  the  train,  1  master  armorer, 
1  master  tailor,  1  master  shoemaker,  10  armorers,  and  10  sutlers. 

The  army  is  filled  by  conscription. 

The  term  of  service  for  the  infantry  and  rifles  is  16  years,  during  8 
of  which  the  men  belong  to  the  active  army,  and  for  8  years  to  the  re- 
serve. They  serve  but  14  months  with  their  regiments  in  time  of  peace, 
and  are  then  sent  on  furlough,  being  liable  to  be  called  out  again  if 
needed.  The  term  of  service  for  the  cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineers,  is 
8  years'  uninterrupted  service ;  these  corps  are  filled  with  volunteers,  sub- 
stitutes, and  men  drawn  by  lot  from  the  mass  of  the  conscripts. 

The  Sardinian  contingent  in  the  Crimea  was  composed  of  provisional 
regiments  of  2  battalions  each ;  these  were  formed  by  detailing  a  company 
from  every  battalion  of  the  infantry,  and  composed  2  divisions  of  4  regi- 
ments, and  a  reserve  brigade.  Two  companies  of  every  battalion  of  ber- 
saglieri  were  present,  forming  5  provisional  battalions. 

The  tactics  and  instruction  of  the  Sardinian  infantry  differ  but  little 
from  that  of  the  French,  from  which  they  are  derived. 


THE   SARDINIAN  INFANTRY.  83 

UNIFORM. 

This  is  a  modification  of  the  French,  and  is  strikingly  similar  to  our  own. 

The  infantry  shako  is  almost  identically  ours. 

The  frock-coat  is  dark  blue. 

The  pants  and  overcoats  are  very  nearly  the  color  of  our  own,  but  of  a 
somewhat  more  grayish  hue. 

The  overcoat  alone  was  worn  in  the  Crimea,  the  frock-coat  being  left 
at  home;  the  overcoat  has  a  large  rolling  collar,  but  no  cape.  Shoes  and 
gaiters  are  used. 

The  knapsack  is  of  black  leather,  and  is  15"  X  12"  X  3F  j  it  is  not 
attached  to  the  waist-belt,  but  has  straps  after  the  Austrian  fashion. 

The  knapsack  contained  1  linen  coat,  1  pair  of  linen  pants,  1  woolen 
shirt,  1  linen  shirt,  1  pair  of  drawers,  1  pair  of  shoes,  1  pair  of  leather 
gaiters,  1  stock  or  scarf,  and  the  brushes ;  a  plaid  blanket  is  strapped  to 
the  top  and  sides  of  the  knapsack ;  the  shelter  tent  is  attached  to  the 
front  of  the  knapsack. 

The  forage  cap  is  of  wool,  and  something  between  the  Greek  cap  and 
the  Turkish  fez ;  it  is  what  is  known  as  the  Italian  fisherman's  cap,  and 
has  no  visor. 

The  hat  of  the  bersaglieri  is  of  felt,  with  a  flat  rim  3"  broad ;  the  rim 
is  stiflf,  and  covered  with  oiled  linen;  the  crown  is  round;  there  is  a 
plume  of  black  cocks'  feathers. 

Their  pants  are  dark  blue,  as  well  as  their  overcoats. 

ARMS  AND  ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Twenty  men  in  each  company  of  infantry^  have  the  bersaglieri  rifle, 
the  rest  have  the  ordinary  percussion  musket,  using  the  Nessler  ball. 

The  bersaglieri  rifle  has  a  30"  barrel,  and  is  quite  heavy;  it  has  8 
grooves,  an  elevating  hausse,  and  sword  bayonet.  The  beak  of  the  butt- 
plate  has  a  spiked  projection  some  5"  or  6"  long,  to  assist  the  men  in 
climbing  hills,  &c. 

The  range  of  this  rifle  is  about  600  metres. 

The  screw-driver  is  of  the  shape  of  a  T ;  at  the  end  of  one  branch  is  a 
gimlet,  so  that  the  screw-driver  may  be  screwed  into  a  tree  to  afibrd  a  rest. 

The  infantry  cartridge-box  contains  30  rounds,  and  is  attached  to  the 
waist-belt  by  a  loop  of  sheet  iron ;  the  bayonet-scabbard  is  also  attached 
to  the  waist-belt ;  the  infantry  wear  no  sabre. 

The  box  of  the  bersaglieri  contains  only  halls  and  cleaning-utensils, 
neither  cartridges  nor  patches  being  used;  the  powder  is  carried  in  a 
rough  wooden  powder-horn,  suspended  by  a  green  cord,  and  thrust  into 
a  pocket  of  the  coat. 

There  is  a  separate  waist-belt  for  the  sword  bayonet  of  the  bersaglieri. 

6 


86  TUE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

that  hostilities  there  are  now  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  most  difficult 
portions;  that  mountain  chains  form  a  great  part  of  its  boundaries  on  the 
sides  of  Turkey  and  Persia;  and  that,  in  the  event  of  an  offensive  war, 
after  having  crossed  these  mOuiltains,  the  opponents  of  the  Russians 
would  consist  mostly  of  irregular  cavalry  and  indifferent  infantry.  These 
considerations  will  explain  the  almost  entire  absence  of  regular  cavalry 
in  that  army.  It  is  probable,  however,  that,  in  the  event  of  a  Persian 
war,  some  regular  cavalry  would  be  added  to  this  army.  During  the 
Persian  campaigns  of  1826  and  1827  a  division  (four  regiments)  of  lancers 
were  with  the  army. 

The  system  of  warfare  adopted  in  the  Caucasus  is  to  cut  off  the  low 
and  settled  regions  from  the  inroads  of  the  mountaineers  by  Cossack 
settlements  and  posts  of  regulars ;  to  construct  roads  and  bridges  through 
the  mountains,  occupying  the  passes  and  other  important  points  by  moun- 
tain forts  with  small  garrisons,  and,  using  these  forts  as  depots,  to  send 
out  small  movable  columns  of  infantry  and  irregular  cavalry  into  the 
heart  of  the  hostile  region. 

The  information  contained  in  this  report  is  derived  from  personal  ob- 
servation, information  obtained  from  Russian  officers,  the  official  regula- 
tions and  tactics,  Haxthausen  on  the  Institutions  of  "Russia,  Hirtenfeld's 
Organization  of  European  Armies,  the  narrative  of  the  campaigns  of 
Paskivitch  in  Asia  Minor  in  1828  and  1829,  and  from  other  sources. 
Errors  have  probably  been  "committed,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  true 
spirit  of  the  organization  is  given. 

COMPOSITION   OF   THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY. 

At  the  commencementof  the  Crimean  war,  the  army  of  Russia  was  com- 
posed and  organized  about  as  follows: 

The  emperor  is  the  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  forces,by  sea  and  land, 

GRAND    STAFF    OF    THE    EMPEROR. 

Its  members,  in  time  of  peace,  participate  in  the  duties  of  the  war 
department,  as  presidents  of  committees,  &c.  It  consists  of:  the  minister 
of  war;  the  inspector-general  of  the  various  corps  of  engineers;  the  in- 
spector-general of  artillery;  the  inspector-general  of  cavalry;  the  in- 
spector-general of  infantry;  the  inspector  of  the  military  engineers;  the 
inspector  of  artillery;  the  chief  of  the  general  staff;  the  inspector-gene- 
ral of  the  army;  the  commandant  of  the  imperial  head-quarters;  the  sub- 
commandant  of  the  same;  the  baggage-master  general;  the  inspector- 
general  of  the  medical  department;  the  chaplain-general. 

THE   GENERAL   AIDES-DE-CAMP. 

This  is  merely  an  honorary  title  bestowed  upon  distinguished  general 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  '  87 

officers,  but  involving  no  especial  duty.  There  are  some  eighty  general 
officers  in  this  category. 

THE   AIDES-DE-CAMP   OP   THE    EMPEROR 

consist  of  about  four  major-generals,  "in  the  suite;"  ^me  thirty  field 
officers,  and  fifteen  captains;  the  number  is  not  limited.  These  are  the 
real  aides-de-camp  of  the  emperor. 

THE   WAR   MINISTRY. 

This  is  (divided  into  the  office  of  the  minister  of  war  and  the  departments. 
(a.)  The  first  consists  of — 

1.  The  military  council  of  legislation  and  administration. 

2.  The  office  proper,  in  six  sections. 

3.  The  committee  of  general  judge  advocates. 

4.  The  committee  of  military  censorship. 

5.  The  scientific  military  committee. 

6.  The  medical  committee. 

(6.)  The  departments.  Of  tiiese,  there  are  nine,  subdivided  into  seve- 
ral sections,  each  department  having  one  director,  one  vice-director,  and 
a  council  of  administration. 

1.  The  department  of  the  grand  general  staff,  under  the  chief  of  the 
general  staff;  in  addition  to  the  usual  functions  of  the  general  staff,  all 
matters  pertaining  to  organization  and  tactics  are  referred  to  this  de- 
partment. 

2.  The  department  of  the  personnel,  under  the  inspector-general  of  the 
army;  this  has  charge  of  the  recruiting  service,  the  central  military 
printing-establishment,  and  the  corps  of  mounted  orderlies  and  couriers. 

3.  The  artillery  department. 

4.  The  engineer  department. 

5.  The  commissariat  department,  for  the  supply  of  money  for  all  pur- 
poses, the  equipment  of  the  troops,  supplies  of  ammunition,  and  the 
administration  of  the  military  hospitals,  under  the  commissary-general. 

6.  The  subsistence  department. 

7.  The  department  of  the  military  colonies. 

8.  The  medical  department. 

9.  The  judge  advocates'  department. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  war  ministry  the  military  authorities  of  the 
different  provinces  administer  their  military  affairs ;  the  commands  of  the 
infantry,  cavalry,  and  independent  corps  are  under  the  war  ministry. 

THE    ARMY. 

This  is  divided  into  the  main  army  of  operations,  reserves,  garrison 
troops,  irregular  troops,  gendarmerie,  model  regiments,  and  military  schools. 


88  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

THE   MAIN   ARMY   OF   OPERATIONS. 

This  is  composed  of  troops  who  have  not  completed  their  first  term  of 
service. 

THE    GENERAL   STAFF 

is  divided  into  the  general  staff  proper  and  the  topographical  corps.  The 
chief  of  the  general  staff  is  at  the  head  of  this  administration,  and  under 
him  a  chief  of  the  topographical  corps. 

The  strength  of  the  general  staff  proper  is  17  general  ^officers,  32 
colonels,  48  lieutenant-colonels,  62  captains,  and  78  lieutenants. 

It  is  subdivided  into  the  grand  general  staff  and  that  of  the  troops. 

The  first  consists  of  9  general  officers,  36  field  and  company  officers, 
and  is  divided  into  three  sections ;  , 

1.  The  affairs  of  the  personnel  of  the  general  staff. 

2.  The  distribution  of  troops,  including  military  operations  and  foreign 
armies. 

3.  Scientific  section,  including  historical  matters. 

The  office  of  the  chief  of  general  staff  is  for  the  administration. 

The  general  staff  of  the  troops  is  as  follows  :  in  each  army  corps,  1 
general  as  chief  of  staff,  2  -field  and  several  company  officers;  in  each 
division,  2  officers. 

The  military  colonies,  reserve  troops,  and  garrison  troops,  have  special 
general  staffs  of  their  own. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL   CORPS. 

This  consists  of  1  general  as  chief,  2  generals,  15  field  officers,  91 
captains  and  lieutenants,  and  8  companies  of  different  strength,  but 
amounting  ^to  456  sergeants  and  privates  in  all.  The  officers  take  rank 
with  those  of  the  general  staff. 

The  corps  is  subdivided  into  the  topographical  depot,  the  topographical 
companies,  and  the  officers  serving  on  the  staff  with  armies,  &c. 

The  depot  is.  subordinate  to  the  grand  general  staff,  and  attends  to  the 
engraving  and  printing  of  maps,  manufacture  and  repair  of  instruments, 
&c.  It  consists  of  6  sections :  1,  the  office ;  2,  topographical  section ; 
3,  astronomical  section ;  4,  section  of  engraving  and  printing ;  5,  me- 
chanical section ;  6,  archives. 

There  are  attached  to  the  depot  1  company  (of  1  officer  and  120  men) 
composed  of  mechanics,  and  a  topographical  school. 

Of  the  8  companies,  1  is  at  the  depot,  as  above,  some  employed  in 
making  surveys,  the  rest  in  fractions  at  the  head-quarters  of  armies  and 
corps.  These  companies  are  usually  recruited  from  among  intelligent 
^antonists,  (soldiers'  sons,)  taken  at  the  age  of  15. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  89 


AIDES-DE-CAMP. 

These  do  not  form  a  separate  corps;  they  are  of  two  kinds:  those  of 
the  emperor,  as  above,  and  those  of  the  generals. 

The  latter  are  of  two  classes :  senior  aides  and  personal  aides. 

The  senior  aides  are  appointed  by  the  emperor,  and  belong  to  the  com- 
mand ]  they  superintend  the  service.  The  personal  aides  are  selected  by 
the  generals,  and  accompany  them  when  they  change  commands. 

All  aides  are  taken  from  among  officers  serving  with  troops,  never 
from  the  general  staff. 

On  the  staff  of  an  army  there  are,  under  the  inspector-general,  who  is 
subordinate  to  the  chief  of  staff,  5  senior  and  from  6  to  11  personal 
aides. 

On  the  staff  of  a  corps,  also  under  the  inspector-general  of  the  corps, 
who  is  subordinate  to  the  chief  of  staff,  there  are  2  senior  and  from  3  to 
4  personal  aides. 

On  the  staff  of  a  division  there  are  1  senior  and  2  personal  aides. 

On  the  staff  of  a  brigade,  1  personal  aide. 

THE  INFANTRY. 

This  is  divided  into  infantry  of  the  line,  light  infantry,  and  rifles.  The 
number  of  regiments  is  as  follows :  12  of  the  guard,  10  grenadier,  4  car- 
bineer, 42  of  the  line,  and  42  light.  There  are  also  the  following  inde- 
pendent battalions  :  1  Finland  rifles  of  the  guard,  1  of  grenadier  rifles, 
and  7  rifles  of  the  line. 

The  different  kinds  of  regiments  just  mentioned  are  numbered  in  sepa- 
rate series ;  in  addition  to  its  number,  each  has  a  name, — generally  that 
of  some  province  or  city.  Many  regiments  bear  also  the  names  of  their 
proprietors,  .who  are  the  grand  dukes,  native  or  foreign  princes,  distin- 
guished generals,  &c.  Each  regiment  of  the  guard,  grenadiers,  and  car- 
bineers, consists  of  three  active  battalions ;  each  regiment  of  the  line  and 
of  light  infantry  has  four  active  battalions.  Every  battalion  is  composed 
of  four  companies. 

On  the  war  establishment,  every  company  consists  of  4  officers,  20  ser- 
geants, 8  musicians,  and,  for  the  guards,  grenadiers,  and  carbineers,  236 
corporals  and  privates ;  for  other  troops,  230  corporals  and  privates. 

The  battalion  staff  consists  of:  1  commandant  of  the  battalion,  1  junior 
field  officer,  1  adjutant,  1  ensign,  and  1  sub-ensign,  (both  sergeants  in 
the  line  of  promotion,)  1  battalion  chief  drummer,  1  battalion  chief 
bugler;  in  the  rifle  battalion  there  is  no  junior  field  officer  or  battalion, 
chief  drummer,  but  there  are  1  quartermaster  and  1  paymaster. 

The  staff  of  a  regiment  of  the  line,  or  light  infantry,  consists  of:  1 
colonel,  1  adjutant,   1  quartermaster,   1  paymaster,  1   band-master,  40' 


90  THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 

musicians,  1  regimental  chief  drummer,  1  regimental  chief  bugler;  the 
regiments  of  guards,  grenadiers,  and  carbineers  have,  in  addition  to  the 
commander  of  the  regiment,  (who  is  a  major-general,)  1  colonel,  and  50 
musicians  instead  of  40. 

The  strength  of  a  battalion  of  the  line  or  light  infantry  is,  then,  1,055 
combatants. 

The  strength  of  a  battalion  of  guards,  grenadiers,  or  carbineers,  is 
1,079  combatants. 

The  strength  of  a  regiment  of  4  battalions  (line  or  light  infantry)  is 
4,267  combatants. 

The  strength  of  a  regiment  of  3  battalions  (guard,  grenadiers,  &c.)  is 
3,294  combatants. 

To  each  re^ment  there  belongs  a  company  of  the  train,  which  com- 
prises the  teamsters,  mechanics,  (except  tailors  q,nd  shoemakers,)  hospital 
attendants,  and  ofl&cers'  servants.  In  a  regiment  of  the  line  the  company 
of  the  train  consists  of:  1  officer,  7  sergeants,  280  corporals  and  privates, 
280  horses,  and  71  wagons  and  carts;  these  men  are  not  included  in  the 
force  of  combatants  as  given  above. 

These  companies  of  the  train  form  the  train  battalion  of  the  division ; 
every  independent  battalion  has  a  company  or  section  of  the  train. 
Attached  to  each  regiment  are  a  surgeon  and  several  assistants. 

The  regiments  of  infantry  are  permanently  organized  into  brigades, 
divisions,  and  army  corps;  2  regiments  form  a  brigade,  2  brigades  a 
division,  3  divisions  (with  the  proper  proportion  of  the  other  arms  of 
service)  a  corps. 

THE  CAVALRY. 

This  consists  of  cuirassiers,  dragoons,  lancers,  hussars,  and  Cossacks. 
The  number  of  regiments  is  as  follows  :  cavalry  of  the  guard-.— cuirassiers 
4,  dragoons  2,  lancers  2,  hussars  2,  Cossacks  2,  and  5 J  independent 
squadrons ;  cavalry  of  the  army — cuirassiers  8,  dragoons  9,  lancers  20, 
and  hussars  16. 

The  regiments  are  named  and  numbered  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
infantry. 

All  the  cuirassier  regiments,  and  all  the  cavalry  of  the  guard,  have  six 
active  squadrons  per  regiment ;  the  dragoons  of  the  line  liave  ten  active 
squadrons  per  regiment;  all  the  rest  of  the  regiments,  except  two  of 
lancers  and  two  of  hussars,  (forming  the  reserve  light  cavalry  division,) 
have  eight  active  squadrons. 

On  the  war  establishment,  the  full  strength  of  each  squadron  is,  6 
officers,  16  sergeants,  3  trumpeters,  146  corporals  and  privates ;  there  are 
also,  usually,  an  assistant  veterinary  surgeon  and  a  horse-shoer. 

The  staff  of  a  regiment  of  six  squadrons  consists  of:  1  colonel,  3  field 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  91 

officers,  (one  to  command  each  division  of  two  squadrons,)  1  adjutant, 
1  quartermaster,  1  paymaster,  1  chief  veterinary  surgeon,  and  1  regi- 
mental trumpeter :  in  a  regiment  of  eight  squadrons  there  is  one  additional 
field  officer,  to  command  the  4th  division. 

The  dragoons  of  the  line  have  each  five  divisions,  of  which  the  first 
four  (having  two  trumpeters  and  two  drummers  to  each  squadron)  are 
stronger  by  two  musicians,  each,  than  the  divisions  of  other  cavalry; 
the  5th  division  is  as  other  cavalry.  The  staff  of  a  dragoon  regiment  has 
one  field  officer  more  than  a  regiment  of  eight  squadrons,  and  also  a  regi- 
mental drummer. 

The  strength  of  a  regiment  of  6  squadrons  is,  thus,  1,034  combatants. 
u  u  g  a  1^377  u 

u                  li                 10               «               1 729  u 

Two  regiments  of  cavalry,  usually  of  the  same  kind,  form  a  brigade ; 

two  brigades,  of  difi"erent  kinds,  form  a  division;  two  or  more  divisions 
form  a  cavalry  corps. 

ARTILLERY. 

There  are  batteries  of  position,  or  heavy  foot  batteries,  light  foot  bat- 
teries, heavy  and  light  horse  batteries,  and  mountain  batteries. 

A  battery  consists  of  8  or  12  pieces,  and  is  usually  commanded  by  a 
field  officer.     Each  battery  has  its  own  section  of  the  train. 

A  heavy  foot  battery  consists  of  six  12-pounder  guns,  six  28-pounder 
licornes,  7  officers,  312  men,  and  241  horses;  or  of  four  12-pounder  guns, 
four  28-pounder  licornes,  7  officers,  222  men,  and  177  horses. 

A  light  foot  battery :  six  6-pounder  guns,  six  14-pounder  licornes,  7 
officers,  246  men,  and  167  horses ;  or  of  four  6-pounder  guns,  four  14- 
pounder  licornes,  7  officers,  172  men,  and  128  horses. 

A  heavy  horse  battery :  eight  28-pounder  licornes,  8  officers,  282  men, 
and  374  horses. 

A  light  horse  battery :  four  6-pounder  guns,  four  14-pounder  licornes, 
7  officers,  219  men,  and  284  horses. 

A  Cossack  battery :  four  6-pounder  guns,  four  14-pounder  licornes,  5 
officers,  202  men,  and  273  horses. 

A  mountain  battery :  eight  3-pounder  guns,  four  4"  mortars,  (weight 
46  pounds,)  7  officers,  222  men,  and  229  horses. 

The  heavy  horse  batteries  have  eight  horses  to  each  piece ;  the  light 
horse  batteries,  and  heavy  foot,  six  horses  per  piece ;  the  light  foot  bat- 
teries, four  horses  to  each  piece. 

The  caisson^  are  two-wheeled  carts,  drawn  by  three  horses  abreast; 
each  12-pounder  gun  and  28-pounder  licorne  has  three  of  these  carts; 
each  6-pounder  gun  and  14-pounder  licorne  has  two  carts. 

The  foot  and  horse  artillery  have  separate  organizations. 


92  .  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

Prom  two  to  four  batteries  form  a  brigade ;  from  two  to  four  brigades, 
a  division.  It  is  proper  to  state  that  the  organization,  as  given  above, 
bids  fair  to  be  superseded,  partially,  at  all  events,  by  the  introduction  of 
the  Napoleon  gun-howitzer ;  these  guns  were  being  cast,  in  large  numbers, 
in  St.  Petersburg,  in  1855. 

ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

These  consist  of  battalions  of  sappers  and  squadrons  of  mounted 
pioneers. 

The  number  of  battalions  is  as  follows :  1  of  the  guard,  1  of  the  grena- 
diers, 6  of  the  line,  and  1  of  the  Caucasus. 

There  are  two  squadrons  of  mounted  pioneers  of  the  guard,  and  two 
squadrons  belonging  to  the  corps  of  dragoons ;  this  is  the  peace  establish- 
ment, to  be  increased  to  sixteen  squadrons  in  time  of  war. 

Each  battalion  of  sappers  consists  of  four  companies. 

Each  company  is  composed  of  5  officers,  20  sergeants,  6  musicians,  and 
230  corporals  and  privates;  on  the  battalion  staff  are  6  officers  and  2 
sergeants. 

The  strength  of  each  division  (two  squadrons)  of  the  mounted  pioneers 
is  13  officers,  29  sergeants,  8  musicians,  328  corporals  and  privates,  and 
275  horses. 

In  time  of  peace,  each  battalion  has  one  ponton  train  of  42  pontons, 
and  as  many  wagons ;  each  squadron  of  the  mounted  pioneers  has  eight 
leather  pontons. 

THE  ARMY  CORPS. 

The  active  troops  heretofore  enumerated  form  the  following  army  corps : 
the  corps  of  infantry  of  the  guard,  and  the  corps  of  grenadiers,  both  elite 
corps,  and  destined  to  form  the  reserves  of  the  active  army  of  operations; 
six  infantry  corps ;  the  corps  of  the  Caucasus ;  the  reserve  cavalry  corps 
of  the  guards ;  the  first  and  second  reserve  cavalry  corps ;  the  reserve 
light  cavalry  division. 

The  corps  of  the  Caucasus  forms  the  basis  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus ; 
its  composition,  and  that  of  the  other  corps,  will  be  given  hereafter.  It 
is  now  necessary  to  explain  the  law  of  distribution  of  regiments,  &c.,  in 
the  brigades,  divisions,  and  corps. 

The  corps  of  infantry  of  the  guard  consists  of  9  regiments  of  grena- 
diers of  the  guard,  and  3  regiments  of  light  infantry  of  the  guard. 

These  are  organized  in  6  brigades,  numbered  from  1  to  6,  and  3  divi- 
sions :  the  1st  brigade  is  composed  of  two  regiments  of  grenadiers ;  the 
2d  brigade  consists  of  1  regiment  of  grenadiers  and  1  of  light  infantry ; 
these  2  brigades  form  the  1st  division.  The  brigades  of  the  other  divi- 
sions are  constituted  in  a  similar  manner. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  93 

Of  the  10  regiments  of  grenadiers  and  4  of  carbineers,  the  first  9  of 
the  former  and  the' first  3  of  the  latter  form  the  infantry  divisions  of  the 
corps  of  grenadiers.  The  10th  grenadiers  and  the  4th  carbineers  form 
the  elite  brigade  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  infantry  of  the  corps  of  grenadiers  is  formed  in  3  divisions, 
organized  exactly  as  the  corps  of  infantry  of  the  guard ;  the  carbineers 
taking  the  place  of  the  light  infantry  regiments  of  the  guard.  The  in- 
fantry brigades  and  divisions  of  the  guard  and  the  grenadiers  are  each 
numbered  in  a  separate  series. 

In  the  troops  of  the  line,  as  distinguished  from  the  two  elite  corps,  2 
regiments  of  heavy  infantry,  or  2  of  light  infantry,  form  a  brigade ;  a 
division  is  composed  of  one  brigade  of  heavy  and  one  brigade  of  light 
infantry ;  3  such  divisions  constitute  the  main  body  of  the  infantry  of  an 
infantry  corps.  There  are  42  regiments  of  heavy  and  42  of  light  infantry, 
forming  21  divisions,  numbered  in  a  regular  series.  The  first  18  divisions 
belong  to  the  six  infantry  corps,  the  last  3  to  the  army  of  the  Caucasus. 
In  these  21  divisions  there  are  21  brigades  of  heavy  and  21  of  light 
infantry ;  42  in  all.  The  1st  and  2d  regiments  of  heavy  infantry 
(infantry  of  the  line)  form  the  1st  brigade  of  infantry  of  the  line ;  the 
1st  and  2d  regiments  of  light  infantry  form  the  1st  brigade  of  light 
infantry ;  these  two  brigades  form  the  1st  division  of  infantry.  The  2d 
division  is  composed  of  the  3d  and  4th  regiments  of  heavy  and  light 
infantry.  The  1st,  2d,  and  3d  divisions  belong  to  the  1st  corps.  In  the 
^ame  manner  they  run  in  regular  series  through  the  six  corps. 

The  cavalry  of  the  guard  forms  the  corps  of  reserve  cavalry  of  the 
guard;  its  regiments  are  numbered  independently  of  the  rest  of  the 
cavalry.  The  8  regiments  of  army  cuirassiers  compose  2  divisions  of  the 
1st  reserve  cavalry  corps.  The  first  8  regiments  of  army  dragoons  con- 
stitute the  2d  reserve  cavalry  corps ;  the  9th  regiment  belongs  to  the 
army  of  the  Caucasus.  The  16  regiments  of  army  hussars  form  8  bri- 
gades, in  which  they  are  distributed  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  infantry 
regiments ;  the  first  6  brigades  belong  to  the  infantry  corps  of  the  same 
numbers ;  the  7th  brigade  to  the  corps  of  grenadiers ;  the  8th  to  the 
reserve  light  cavalry  division. 

The  20  regiments  of  army  lancers  form  10  brigades,  the  first  seven  of 
which  serve  with  the  corresponding  hussar  brigades,  thus  forming  the 
light  cavalry  divisions  attached  to  the  infantry  and  grenadier  corps ;  the 
8th  and  9th  brigades  form  the  lancer  division  of  the  1st  cavalry  reserve 
corps ;  the  10th  belongs  to  the  reserve  light  cavalry  division. 

The  artillery  of  the  guards  and  grenadiers  is  numbered  independently 
of  the  rest  of  the  artillery,  except  the  brigade  of  the  horse  artillery  of 
the  grenadiers.  There  are  6  divisions  of  army  field  artillery  for  the  6 
infantry  corps,  the  division  bearing  the  number  of  its  corps. 


94 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


Each  division  consists  of  one  brigade  of  horse  artillery,  each  brigade 
bearing  the  number  of  its  corps,  and  the  batteries  numbered  in  regular 
series,  and  of  3  brigades  of  foot  artillery ;  the  brigades  of  the  latter,  as 
well  as  the  batteries,  are  numbered  in  regular  series  throughout. 

The  batteries  of  heavy  and  light  foot  artillery  are  numbered  separately. 
The  brigade  of  horse  artillery  serving  with  the  corps  of  grenadiers  is 
numbered  the  7th,  to  correspond  with  the  light  cavalry  division  of  that 
cor|)s.  The  brigades  of  horse  artillery  act  with,  and  are  regarded  as  be- 
longing to,  the  cavalry  divisions  of  their  respective  corps. 

The  artillery  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus  has  a  separate  organization. 
The  rifle  battalions  bear  the  numbers  or  names  of  the  corps  to  which  they 
belong. 

The  sanie  rule  applies  to  the  sappers  and  the  brigades  of  the  train. 

The  rule  explained  above  will  be  more  clearly  understood  by  giving  an 
example;  the  fifth  infantry  corps  will  be  taken  for  that  purpose ;  its  com- 
position is  as  follows : 


FIFTH   INFANTRY   CORPS.  • 


5th  diyision  light  cavalry.  ■ 

13th  division  of  infantry..  / 
14th  division  of  infantry..  J 
15th  diyision  of  infantry..  J 


5th  lancer  brigade. 


J    9th  regiment  of  lancers. 
\  10th  regiment  of  lancers. 


6th  division  field  artillery. 


5th  hussar  brigade /    ^^J  ^«g!°^«^*  ^i  J"^^^"' 

(  10th  regiment  of  hussars. 

25th  and  26th  regiments  infantry  of  the  line. 

25th  and  26th  regiments  light  infantry. 

27th  and  28th  regiments  infantry  of  the  line. 

27th  and  28th  regiments  light  infantry. 

29th  and  30th  regiments  infantry  of  the  line. 

29th  and  30th  regiments  light  infantry. 

5th  brigade  horse  artillery,  light  horse  batteries,  Nos.  9  and  10. 

r  Battery  of  position.  No.  17. 
13th  brigade  foot  artillery..  J  ^^^^ry  of  position,  No.  18. 

1  Light  foot  battery.  No.  33. 

[  Light  foot  battery,  No.  34. 

r  Battery  of  position,  No.  19.  . 

14th  brigade  foot  artillery..  J  ^'^^^  ^^^^  ^^"ery.  No.  35. 
I  Light  foot  battery.  No.  36. 
[  Light  foot  battery,  No.  37. 
r  Battery  of  position,  No.  20. 

15th  brigade  foot  artillery..  J 


Rifle  battalion,  No.  5. 

Sapper  battalion,  No.  6,  5th  brigade  of  the  train. 


Light  foot  battery,  No.  39. 
[  Light  foot  battery,  No.  40. 


There  will  now  be  given  the  general  composition  and  strength  of  the 
several  army  corps : 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


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THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


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98  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


RESERVE   TROOPS   OF   THE   GRAND   ARMY. 

There  are  two  classes  of  reserve  troops,  the  reserve  and  the  depot 
troops.  Authorities  differ  somewhat  as  to  the  constitution  of  these  re- 
serves, but  it  is  believed  that  the  description  here  given  will  give  a 
correct  idea  of  the  principles  of  their  formation,  although  it  may  be  in- 
correct in  some  details. 

The  term  of  service  in  the  Russian  army  is :  twenty  years  in  the  mili- 
tary colonies,  twenty-three  years  in  the  guards,  twenty-five  years  in  other 
corps. 

By  the  late  Emperor  Nicholas  was  introduced  the  system  of  granting 
unlimited  furloughs  to  soldiers  who  had  served  faithfully  for  a  certain 
time.  For  the  purposes  of  conscription,  Russia  in  Europe  is  divided 
into  the  eastern  and  western  provinces,  the  line  of  separation  being 
pretty  nearly  the  meridian  of  Moscow. 

The  soldiers  from  the  eastern  provinces  and  the  military  colonies 
receive  their  furlough  after  fifteen  years'  service ;  those  from  the  western 
provinces,  after  ten  years'  service;  both  categories  then  pass  into  the 
reserves.  Any  soldier  who  entered  the  service  in  consequence  of  civil 
misdemeanors,  or  who  has  been  condemned  to  punishment  for  a  serious 
offence  while  in  the  service,  loses  his  right  to  the  furlough,  and,  in  the 
latter  case,  may  even  be  required  to  serve  longer  than  twenty-five 
years. 

The  soldiers  from  the  western  provinces  and  the  colonies  compose  the 
mass  of  the  first  reserve,  (reserve  proper.)  They  are  called  together  for 
exercise  during  about  four  weeks  in  every  year,  and  in  time  of  war  are 
the  first  called  upon  for  service.  In  this  case,  they  are  either  drafted 
into  the  active  battalions,  squadrons,  &c.,  or  may  serve  as  battalions,  &c., 
by  themselves.  In  time  of  peace,  when  not  called  out  for  drill,  they 
exercise  their  civil  avocations  as  any  other  persons. 

The  second  reserve  (depot  troops)  are  only  called  out  in  time  of  war. 

The  small  permanent  skeletons  of  these  reserve  battalions,  squadrons, 
and  batteries,  serve  as  schools  of  instruction  for  recruits,  who  are  usually 
kept  there  about  a  year  before  joining  their  regiments. 

The  principal  depot  for  the  instruction  of  infantry  recruits  is  at 
Moscow. 

The  reserve  troops  are  officered  by  officers  on  leave  of  absence,  on  the 
retired  list,  &c. 

Through  the  whole  army,  including  the  guards,  there  is  for  every  regi- 
ment of  infantry  a  reserve  battalion,  for  every  regiment  of  cavalry  a 
reserve  squadron,  for  every  brigade  of  artillery  a  reserve  battery,  and  two 
reserve  battalions  of  sappers. 

Omitting  the  guards,  there  is  for  every  regiment  of  infantry  a  depot 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  99 

battalion,  for  every  regiment  of  cavalry  a  depot  squadron,  for  every  brigade 
of  foot  artillery  a  depot  battery,  and  two  depot  battalions  of  sappers. 

TROOPS    HAYING    A    LOCAL    DESTINATION. — THE  ARMY    OP    THE 

CAUCASUS. 

The  regiments  of  tbe  divisions  of  infantry,  (19tli,  20tli,  and  21st,) 
forming  the  basis  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus,  have  lately,  perhaps  only 
temporarily,  been  increased  to  5  battalions  each,  and  the  regiments  of  the 
elite  brigade  to  4  battalions  each;  the  regular  portion  of  this  army  is 
then  as  follows :  • 

3  divisions  of  infantry,  each  of  4  regiments  of  5  battalions..  62,880  men. 
1  4lite  brigade  (10th  grenadiers  and  4th  carbineers  of  4 

battalions  each) 8,576     " 

1  battalion  of  rifles.....* 1,048     " 

47  regular  battalions  of  native  troops 49,585     " 

1  battalion  of  sappers ' 1,052     " 

1  regiment  of  dragoons  (the  9th)  of  10  squadrons 1,729     " 

1  division  of  artillery,  of  4  brigades,  having  in  all :  4  heavy 
foot  batteries  of  12  pieces  each,  6  light  foot  batteries  of 
8  pieces  each,  6  mountain  batteries  of  12  pieces  each; 

total  168  pieces,  and  1  rocket  battery 3,953     " 

Total  regular  troops :  123,141  infantry,  1,729  cavalry,  3,953  artillery, 
1,052  sappers,  and  168  pieces  and  1  rocket  battery. 

Of  the  reserve  and  depot  battalions  and  squadrons  of  the  19th,  20th, 
and  21st  divisions,  the  elite  brigade,  and  the  dragoon  regiment,  one-half 
are  kept  constantly  under  arms  and  ready  to  march. 

Of  the  troops  mentioned  hereafter  under  the  head  of  irregulars,  the 
Cossacks  of  the  line  of  the  Caucasus,  the  Mussulmen,  and  a  portion  of 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Don  and  the  Black  Sea,  are  constantly  under  arms 
and  ready  for  service.  All  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  those  of 
the  Black  Sea,  can  be  made  available  if  necessary. 

In  other  European  nations,,the  regular  troops  destined  to  form  the 
army  of  operations  in  war,  perform  during  peace  the  service  of  the 
interior,  which  is  confided  to  the  national  guards  and  militia  in  war;  but 
in  Russia  this  service  is  perforiAed  by  a  special  regular  army,  the  neces- 
saiy  cavalry  and  field  artillery  for  which  are  chiefly  furnished  by  the  Cos- 
sacks. These  troops  are  charged  with  the  service  in  the  fortresses  and 
cities,  with  the  defence  of  certain  turbulent  portions  of  the  frontier,  the 
administration  of  the  arsenals,  workshops,  &c. 

Infantry. — 12  battalions  of  Finland  form  the  22d  division  of  infantry, 
and  perform  the  interior  service  of  Finland. 


100  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

10  Orenburg  battalions  form  the  23d  division  of  infantry,  and  are 
charged  with  the  interior  service  of  that  province. 

15  battalions  of  Siberia  compose  the  24th  division  of  infantry,  and 
perform  the  interior  service  of  that  region.  This  division  is  organized  in 
8  brigades,  and  has  2  guns  with  each  brigade. 

60  battalions  of  guards  of  the  interior;  each  battalion  having  21 
officers  and  1,000  men,  and  divided  into  4  companies.  For  every^  5 
battalions  there  are  5  howitzers,  (licornes.)  These  troops  are  employed 
in  European  Russia,  partly  as  the  garrisons  of  fortresses,  partly  in  the 
open  cities.  They  are  charged,  alsq,  with  the  transportation  of  the 
reserves,  recruits,  &c.,  their  commanders  having  the  superintendence  of 
the  reserves  of  all  classes.  Each  battalion  has  attached  to  it  a  penal 
section^  for  minor  offenders  from  the  army.  In  these  battalions  are  many 
veterans. 

Cavalry. — There  are  Hi  squadrons  of  gendarmes,  with  a  total  strength 
of  2,364.  In  time  of  peace,  they  act  as  a  military  police ',  in  war,  they 
serve  at  the  head-quarters  of  corps  and  armies  in  the  field,  having  charge 
of  the  police,  prisoners,  &c. 

Artillery. — 98  companies  of  garrison  artillery,  each  company  consist- 
ing of  4  officers  and  165  men.  These  companies  serve  the  artillery  of 
the  fortresses,  and  some  serve  at  the  arsenals,  &c. 

12  arsenal  companies,  of  the  same  strength  as  the  last.  These  serve  at 
the  arsenals,  foundries,  artillery  workshops,  small-arm  factofies,  powder- 
mills,  &c. 

6  laboratory  companies,  each  consisting  of  4  officers  and  182  men. 
They  are  stationed  at  the  six  principal  laboratories  of  the  empire. 
•  Engineers. — This  corps  consists  of  10  general  officers,  and  342  other 
officers,  in  addition  to  25  companies  of  workmen,  (selected  mechanics,) 
of  3  officers  and  208  men  each.  They  are  charged  with  the  construction 
of  fortifications  and  the  care  of  material;  54  penal  companies  (soldiers 
condemned  to  labor  on  the  fortifications)  are  under  their  direction.  This 
garrison  engineer  corps  has  also  charge  of  2  engineer  parks  for  the  supply 
of  sapper  and  pontonier  materials. 

552  companies  of  infantry  veterans,  ^^ho  are  on  service  in.  the  smaller 
towns  and  villages,  have  places  in  the  post-office  service,  act  as  orderlies 
in  government  offices,  take  charge  of  public  buildings,  &c.  271  invalid 
establishments,  many  of  whose  members  perform  similar  services  to  those 
last  mentioned. 

THE   MODEL   REGIMENTS. 

The  object  of  the  model  regiment  of  cavalry  is  to  secure  a  uniform 
system  of  equitation  and  instruction  throughout  that  arm  of  service.  It 
consists  of  6 J  squadrons,  viz.:  ^  squadron  of  Cossacks,  1  squadron  of 


THE  RUSSIAN    ARMY.  ^  101 

cuirassiers,  1  squadron  of  hussar^  2  squadrons  of  dragoons,  2  squadrons 
of  lancers.  It  is  composed  of  ofl&cers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
privates  from  all  the  regiments  of  cavalry;  after  going  through  a  thorough 
course  of  instruction,  they  return  to  their  respective  regiments.  With 
similar  objects,  there  are  also  established  a  model  regiment  of  infantry; 
a  model  battery  of  horse  artillery;  a  model  battery  of  foot  artillery;  and 
a  model  battalion  for  the  army  of  the  Caucasus.  Officers  and  men 
generally  serve  one  year  with  the  model  regiments. 

MILITARY   SCHOOLS. 

As  these  will  be  fully  treated  of  by  another  member  of  the  commission, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  state  here  that  they  are  numerous  and  admirable. 
It  is  difficult  to  perceive  in  what  respect  they  are  inferior  to  any  in 
Europe. 

The  majority  of  the  officers  come  from  the  military  schools,  and  the 
absolute  necessity  of  such  institutions  is  fully  recognized. 

IRREGULAR   TROOPS. 

These  include  the  Cossacks,  Caucasians,  Calmucks,  Tartars,  Boschkirs, 
&c.  These  people  are  not  subjected  to  the  ordinary  conscription,  but,  being 
exempt  from  certain  taxes,  are  required  to  furnish,  at  their  own  expense, 
a  certain  quota  per  district.  The  organization  of  all  these  troops  is  based 
upon  that  of  the  Cossacks,  who  form  the  most  important  and  effective 
portion. 

The  great  mass  is  of  cavalry,  with  some  batteries,  and  a  few  battalions 
of  infantry,  for  service  in  special  districts. 

The  sotnia  is  the  unit,  both  of  cavalry  and  infantry;  its  strength 
varies  from  100  to  200  men. 

All  the  officers  are  appointed  by  the  emperor;  the  subaltern  grades 
alone  being  filled,  as  a  general  rule,  by  Cossacks. 

Although  the  Cossacks  are  all  classed  under  the  general  name  of 
irregulars,  there  are  many  regiments  which  are,  in  reality,  regular  light 
cavalry ;  it  is  probable  that  the  Cossacks  of  the  guard,  and  many  of  those 
of  the  Don,  are  the  best  regular  light  cavalry  in  the  world.  I  have 
witnessed  manceuvres  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  guard  conducted  with  a 
precision  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  exceed. 

The  service  of  the  irregular  troops  is  mostly  performed  on  the  frontiers, 
and  in  the  more  wild  and  disturbed  portions  of  the  empire,  e.g.  in  Siberia, 
on  the  frontiers  of  China  and  Tartary,  in  the  Caucasus,  on  the  Danube, 
&c.  Yet  large  bodies  of  them  are  with  the  regular  troops  in  Poland,  &c., 
and  they  are  much  employed  at  the  custom-houses  as  police,  &c.  The 
Cossacks  of  the  Don  and  the  Oural,  being  no  longer  in  direct  and  con« 
stant  contact  with  an  enemy,  may,  ere  long,  cease  to  exist  as  such;  at 


102 


THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


present,  many  of  them  are  employed  in  the  Caucasus.  The  Cossacks  of 
the  Sea  of  Azoff  man.  the  gun-boats  used  on  that  sea  and  on  the  coast  of 
the  Caucasus. 

The  Cossacks  of  the  Black  Sea  are  now  chiefly  in  the  Kuban;  and  it 
was  by  a  union  of  a  portion  of  these  with  the  mountain  Cossacks  that 
the  formidable  Cossacks  of  the  line  of  the  Caucasus  were  formed. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  accurate  and  full  information  as  to  the  numbers 
of  the  irregular  troops;  the  enumeration  of  Cossacks  given  below  is 
probably  below  the  true  number. 

EFFECTIVE    STRENGTH   OF   THE   COSSACKS. 


1 
1 

p 

a 

"So 
v 

1 

Cm 

O 

.1 

s 
o 

a 
.2 

1 

Pieces. 

Names  of  Cossack  armies. 

1 

IS 

s 

o 

W 

1 
1 

1 

3 

Approximate  strength, 
exclusive  of  artillery. 

58 
2 

12 

18 

12 

10 

3 

9 

348 
12 

74 

108 
60 
60 
18 
54 
8 



14 

112 

112 

42,000  cavalry. 
1,700  cavalry. 

f  9,000  cavalry. 

'  9,000  infantry. 
16,000  cavalry. 
7,500  cavalry. 
7,500  cavalry. 
2,000  cavalry. 
6,500  cavalry. 

2.  Army  of  the  Danube.... 

3.  Army  of  the  Black  Sea.. 

4.  Army  ofline  of  Caucasus, 
fi     Armv  of  Onral 

9 


4 
3 

24 
24 

8 

32 
24 

6.  Army  of  Orenburg 

7.  Army  of  Astrakan 

8.  Army  of  Siberia 

•    3 
1 
3 

24 

8 

24 



24 

8 

24 

9.  Army  of  Chinese  frontier. 
10.  Army  of  cities  of  Siberia. 

1,000  cavalry. 
24,000  infantry. 

24 

Total 

124 

742 

33 

28 

216 

8 

224 

f  93,000  cavalry. 
{  33,000  infantry. 

On  the  Chinese  frontier  there  are  also  five  regiments  of  Toungouse 
cavalry.  In  the  Caucasus  there  are  regiments  of  native  irregulars,  Mus- 
sulmen,  &c.  During  the  campaigns  of  1828  and  1829  there  .were  with 
the  army  of  Marshal  Paskivitch  four  regiments  of  Mussulmen  cavalry ; 
the  number  has  been  increased  since  then. 


RECRUITING,   ETC. 

The  officers  of  the  army  are  chiefly  supplied  by  young  nobles,  who 
enter  the  service  after  having  passed,  as  cadets,  through  some  of  the 
numerous  military  schools,  or  else  have  prepared  themselves  by  serving 
six  months  as  pi-ivates,  two  years  as  sergeants,  and  then  as  ensigns  in  the 
regiments;  and  partly  by  sergeants,  who,  after  twelve  years'  irreproachable 
service,  have  the  right  to  demand  an  examination  for  the  grade  of  ensign. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  103 

The  ensign  is  a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  line  of  promotion,  and 
must  pass  an  examination  before  receiving  a  commission. 

The  officers  of  the  general  staff  {6tat  major)  are  selected  from  officers 
of  all  arms,  who,  after  having  served  two  years,  apply  for  the  corps. 
They  must  be  recommended  by  their  commanders,  then  pass  an  examina- 
tion before  being  admitted  to  the  school  of  the  general  staff;  having 
spent  two  years  at  this  school,  they  undergo  a  final  examination ;  if  they 
pass  this,  they  receive  vacancies  as  they  occur,  serving  meanwhile  with 
arms  of  service  different  from  that  to  which  they  originally  belonged. 

The  non-commissioned  officers,  musicians,  soldiers,  veterinaries,  master- 
workmen,  &c.,  are  supplied  in  three  ways:  first,  by  conscription;  second, 
from  the  cantonists;  third,  by  voluntary  enlistment. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  conscription,  the  European  provinces  are 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  eastern  and  the  western;  the  line  of  demar- 
cation follows  very  nearly  the  meridian  of  Moscow.  In  time  of  peace 
each  of  these  divisions  takes  turns  in  furnishing  the  annual  supply  of 
recruits,  which  is  five  men  out  of  every  1,000  squls  of  the  division  called 
upon.  But  in  time  of  war,  or  whenever  the  exigencies  of  the  service  de- 
mand it,  this  ratio  is  increased,  or  both  divisions  are  called  upon  at  once. 
There  are  certain  conditions  which  exempt  from  the  conscription :  for 
instance,  if  there  is  but  one  male  in  a  family;  bein^  the  father  of  three 
young  children;  being  an  orphan  or  a  foundling,  &c.,  &c.  In  the  com- 
munities called  upon,  lots  are  cast;  but  it  is  mentioned  as  a  singular  in- 
stance of  the  workings  of  chance  that  the  lot  is  very  apt  to  fall  upon  the 
most  worthless  characters  in  the  community. 

Under  the  head  of  conscription  it  may  be  mentioned  that  men  guilty 
of  civil  offences  are  frequently  condemned  to  serve  in  the  army :  for  in- 
stance, if  a  coachman  carelessly  drives  over  any  one  in  the  streets,  he  is 
sent  forthwith  to  the  army;  vagabonds,  thieves,  gipsies,  dissipated  men, 
&c.,  are  not  unfrequently  condemned  to  serve.  Yet  mingled  with  these 
worthless  characters  are  many  good  men :  in  fact,  the  latter  preponderate, 
and  the  influence  of  rigid  discipline  soon  converts  the  others  at  least 
into  good  soldiers,  if  not  into  good  men.  Any  one  designated  as  a  con- 
script may  purchase  a  substitute,  if  he-  can  find  one. 

The  cantonists  are  soldiers'  children,  educated  for  the  army  at  tJie  ex- 
pense of  the  State.  Every  son  of  a  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier, 
born  after  his  father  enters  the  service,  is  necessarily  a  cantonist. 

At  the  option  of  his  parents,  he  may  be  taken  care  of  in  one  of  two 
ways :  he  may  remain  with  them  until  the  age  of  twenty,  the  government 
allowing  him  clothing  and  rations,  and  then  enter  the  army  as  a  private 
soldier;  or  he  may,  at  the  age  of  six,  be  taken  charge  of  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  is  then  brought  up  at  one  of  the  establishments  maintained  for 
the  purpose. 


104  THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

With  regard  to  the  cantonists  of  the  first  class,  the  State  assists  in  their 
education,  which  is  not  so  perfect  as  that  of  the  others;  those  who  are 
physically  unfit  for  the  service  are  apprenticed  to  a  trade,  and  finally 
sent  to  the  military  colonies. 

The  cantonists  of  the  second  class  remain  at  the  preparatory  establish- 
ments until  the  age  of  12;  they  then  enter  the  corps  of  cantonists,  which 
consists  of  25  battalions,  20  squadrons,  5  batteries,  1  regimental  school 
of  the  guards,  14  artillery  division  schools,  3  sapper  brigade  schools,  1 
Cossack  school,  and  1  Siberian  school. 

At  about  the  age  of  17  they  leave  the  corps  of  cantonists,  and  enter  either 
the  battalions  of  instruction,  where  8  battalions  of  carbineers,  1  squadron 
of  dragoons,  (attached  to  the  model  regiment  of  cavalry,)  3  batteries,  and 
1  battalion  of  sappers  are  destined  to  receive  them,  or  enter  the  special 
schools,  among  which  are,  11  schools  of  the  garrison  artillery,  for  edu- 
cating non-commissioned  officers,  3  technical '  schools,  for  the  education 
of  master-workmen  in  the  armories,  3  for  master-workmen  in  the  powder- 
mills,  3  for  master-workmen 'in  the  arsenals,  1  veterinary  school,  1  surgical 
school,  1  school-  for  accountants,  1  topographical  school,  1  school  for 
riding-masters,  and  1  for  fencing-masters;  finally,  they  may  enter  the  army 
directly  from  the  corps  of  cantonists. 

With  the  means  thus  provided,  the  cantonists  furnish  excellent  non- 
commissioned officers,  clerks,  musicians,  master-workmen,  veterinaries, 
&c.,  &c. 

This  would  seem  to  be  the  proper  place  for  alluding  to  the  laws  with 
regard  to  the  marriage  of  officers  and  men. 

No  officer  is  allowed  to  marry  without  permission ;  this  permission  is 
granted  only  when  either  the  officer,  or  the  lady  whom  he  is  about  to 
marry,  possesses  a  certain  amount  of  property.  This  amount  is  difi"erent 
for  different  grades,  and  is  intended  to  be  sufficient  to  enable  the  officer 
to  support  his  family  in  a  manner  befitting  his  condition  during  his  life, 
and  to  give  them  a  decent  competence  after  his  death.  The  marriage  of 
the  soldiers  is  encouraged,  for  the  reason  that  the  institution  of  the  can- 
tonists prevents  their  children  from  being  an  encumbrance  to  the  regi- 
ment and  a  burden  upon  the  State. 

Wherever  it  is  possible,  suites  of  rooms  are  appropriated  to  the  married 
soldiers :  more  than  one  family  usually  living  in  the  same  room. 

Voluntary  enlistments  are  comparatively  few.  To  every  volunteer  who 
presents  himself  the  government  advances  a  certain  bounty,  which  it 
receives  back  again  from  the  first  conscript  who  desires  a  substitute.  The 
greater  part  of  the  bounty  is  invested  for  the  volunteer,  who  receives  but 
a  small  portion  of  it  before  the  expiration  of  his  enlistment. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  105 

THE  MILITARY  COLONIES. 
Those  for  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  are  in  the  south  of  Russia. 

(a)  The  Ukraine  colony,  in  the  government  of  CharkoflF :  here  are  the 
2d  reserve  cavalry  corps,  the  6th  division  of  light  cavalry,  and  6th 
brigade  of  horse  artillery. 

(b)  Colony  of  South  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Cherson :  1st  reserve 
cavah'y  corps. 

(c)  Colony  of  the  Boug,  in  the  government  of  Podolia :  4th  division 
of  light  cavalry,  and  4th  brigade  of  horse  artillery. 

(^d)  Colony  of  the  Lower  Boug,  in  the  government  of  Cherson :  6th 
division  of  light  cavalry,  and  5th  brigade  of  horse  artillery. 

The  reserve  light  cavalry  division,  and  the  reserve  batteries  of  the 
horse  artillery  belonging  to  the  infantry  corps,  are  also  in  these  colonies. 

The  arrangement  of  the  colonies  is  as  follows :  one-half  the  ground  is 
reserved  for  the  support  of  the  troops,  and  is  cultivated  by  the  colonists  •, 
the  other  half  is  divided  among  the  colonists,  each  family  having  240 
acres,  one  plough,  and  a  house.  From  40  to  50  houses  form  a  platoon, 
180  to  190  a  squadron,  or  village,  and  frofti  6  to  10  squadrons  a  regi- 
ment. 

The  officers  preserve  military  and  civil  order  among  the  colonists. 

Each  house  is  required  to  feed  and  lodge  a  soldier,  without  his  horse, 
the  soldier  assisting  his  host  jn  his  work.  The  colonist  is  exempt  from 
all  taxes,  military  liabilities,  &c.  The  possession  passes  down  to  the 
eldest  son,  and  renders  him  exempt  from  military  duties,  while  the  other 
sons  become  cantonists,  like  soldiers'  children,  and  ^are  eventually  taken 
into  the  regiment. 

In  the  colonies  every  married  soldier  has  a  separate  house.  In  every 
village  there  are  stables,  riding-houses,  hospitals,  arsenals,  &c. 

The  infantry  colonies,  near  Novgorod,  are  no  longer  true  colonies ;  the 
system  has  been  abandoned  there,  and  at  present  certain  troops  are  can- 
toned there,  under  no  peculiar  regulations. 

UNIFORM. 

The  predominant  color  of  the  Russian  uniform  is  dark  green.  A  frock- 
coat  is  worn  by  all  grades,  and  all  arms  of  service ;  it  is  green,  except  for 
certain  portions  of  the  cavalry. 

Boots  are  worn  by  all  arms ;  they  are  habitually  inside  the  pants,  except 
for  the  cuirassiers,  who,  in  full  dress,  wear  the  jack  boot;  the  infantry, 
however,  on  the  march,  tuck  the  pants  inside  of  the  boot-legs. 

The  stock  is  of  green  cloth,  and  fastens  by  a  button;  it  has  in  front  a. 
flap,  some  four  or  five  inches  long. 

The  distinctions  of  regiments,  divisions,  and  corps,  are  found  in  the- 


106  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

buttons,  shoulder-straps,  and  facings  of  the  cuffs  and  collar;  sometimes 
in  the  head-covering  and  the  color  of  the  dress. 

On.  certain  occasions  the  officers  wear  sashes ;  these  are  of  silver  cloth 
for  the  guard,  and  of  mohair,  colored  white,  black,  and  orange,  for  the 
rest  of  the  army;  the  tassel  is  worn  behind  the  left  hip.  The  sword-knot 
is  of  similar  material  and  color.  Officers  on  duty  wear  the  gorget;  a 
crescent-shaped  metallic  plate,  hung  around  the  neck,  and  restipg  on  the 
breast  just  below  the  collar.  Generals,  staff  officers,  and  adjutants  of 
infantry,  wear  a  straight  sword.  The  different  grades  of  officers  are  dis- 
tinguished chiefly  by  the  epaulettes,  or  shoulder-straps. 

Company  officers  wear  epaulettes  without  bullion,  i.e.  merely  the  strap 
and  crescent,  the  latter  of  wire  instead  of  solid  metal ;  a  sub-lieutenant 
has  one  star  on  the  strap  of  each  epaulette,  a  lieutenant  two  stars,  a  cap- 
tain three.  Field  officers  have  a  very  short  and  light  bullion;  a  major 
has  o;ie  star,  a  lieutenant-colonel  two,  a  colonel  three. 

General  officers  wear  a  heavier  bullion,  of  the  pattern  known  as  the 
box-epaulette;  a  major-general  has  one  star,  a  lieutenant-general  two,  a 
general  three.  A  fie]d  marshal  wears  a  still  heavier  epaulette,  with  three 
stars,  and  a  distinctive  gold  embroidery  on  the  collar. 

All  officers  have,  in  full  dress,  lace  or  embroidery  on  the  collar  and 
cuffs,  distinctive  of  rank. 

The  aiguillette  is  worn  by  staff  officers. 

Mounted  officers  are  required  to  wear  their  spurs  on  all  occasions.  The 
helmet  is  worn  by  all  staff  officers ;  officers  serving  with  regiments  wear  a 
head-dress  similar  to  that  of  their  men. 

The  forage  cap  o^  the  officers  is  flat,  with  a  large  round  top,  and  a 
peaked  visor.     General  officers  wear  scarlet  pants,  with  a  gold  stripe. 

Other  officers  wear  dark  green  pants  with  a  red  cord,  except  in  those 
regiments  where  the  men  wear  pants  of  some  other  color  than  green. 

Infantry  officers  wear  an  overcoat  of  the  same  cut  and  color  as  those  of 
the  men. 

Cavalry  and  staff  officers  wear  a  mantle,  or  loose  overcoat,  with  a  long 
cape,  and  of  a  dark  gray  color. 

Recently  a  field  uniform  has  been  adopted  for  the  officers,  in  which  the 
epaulettes  are  replaced  by  shoulder-straps  of  a  shape  similar  to  those  worn 
by  the  men. 

•  The  distinctive  mark  of  a  non-commissioned  officer  is  a  narrow  strip  of 
gold  or  silver  lace  (depending  upon  the  color  of  the  button)  on  the  upper 
and  front  edges  of  the  collar  and  on  the  cuffs. 

Chevrons  are  worn  on  one  arm,  and  merely  designate  length  of  service. 

The  soldiers'  clothing  is  of  a  very  coarse  but  serviceable  material,  and  is 
made  up  in  the  regiments. 

The  same  overcoat  is  worn  by  all  arms  of  service ;  it  is  of  a  brownish- 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY.  107 

gray  color;  very  long,  reaching  to  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the 
bottom  of  the  pants ;  double-breasted,  standing  collar,  without  cape ;  it  is 
made  very  loose  by  means  of  large  plaits  in  the  back,  which  can  be 
gathered  up  by  a  strap  and  button ;  the  buttons,  shoulder-straps,  cuff  and 
collar  -facings,  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  uniform  coat.  As  the  men 
have  no  blanket  in  the  field,  the  overcoat  is  their  only  protection.  It  is 
the  habitual  and  favorite  dress  of  the  Russian  soldier;  on  the  march  the 
infantry  hook  up  the  skirts. 

The  forage  cap,  for  all  arms,  is  low,  with  a  flat,  round  top,  and  has  no 
visor ;  it  is  of  the  color  of  the  overcoat,  usually  has  a  red  cloth  band,  with 
the  number  of  the  company  in  yellow  cloth,  and  a  red  cord  around  the 
edge  of  the  top. 

Instead  of  socks,  the  men  have  bandages  of  linen,  which  they  wrap 
around  the  feet.     Shirts  and  drawers  are  issued. 

INFANTRY. 

Black  leather  helmet,  with  a  brass  spear-head ;  thin  strap,  plated  with 
brass  scales ;  large  imperial  eagle  of  brass  on  the  front. 

Coat,  dark  green;  distinction  of  regiments  and  divisions  as  follows: 
number  of  the  regiment  on  the  button,  which  is  yellow ;  number  of  the 
division  on  the  shoulder-straps,  which  are  shaped  like  those  upon  the  old 
United  States  private's  undress  jacket.  Infantry  of  the  line  have  red 
facings  on  their  collars ;  light  infantry,  darh  green ;  both  have  red  cuff- 
facings."  The  1st  regiment  of  each  brigade  of  infantry  of  the  line  have 
red,  the  2d  white  shoulder-straps ;  the  1st  regiment  of  each  brigade  of 
light  infantry  have  light  blue,  the  2d  dark  green  shoulder-straps.  The 
rifle  battalions  have  white  buttons  and  shoulder-straps;  black  facings. 
Pants  of  all  the  infantry,  dark  green,  with  a  red  cord;  in  summer,  white 
linen. 

CAVALRY. 

Pants,  except  for  the  Cossacks  and  dragoons  of  the  Caucasus,  light  blue, 
with  a  red  cord,  and  re-enforced  with  black  leather. 

Cm iVassj'ers. -^Metallic  helmet,  white  coat,  with  facings  of  various  colors 
for  the  different  regiments ;  white  gauntlets. 

Dragoons. — Helmet  like  that  of  the  infantry,  but  with  black  horsehair 
plumes ;  coat,  dark  green,  yellow  buttons,  brass  shoulder-scales.  * 

Lancers. — Czapka,  or  Polish  lancer  cap,  of  same  color  as  the  facings; 
water-proof  cover.  Coat,  sky-blue;  facings  different  for  different  regi- 
ments; buttons  white. 

Hussars. — Cloth  shako,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  a  little  larger  at  the  top 
than  at  bottom;  visor  sloping  and  peaked;  hair  hackle;  cap  cord;  water- 
proof cover..  Coats  of  various  .colors,  trimmed  with  bright  cord;  shoulder- 


108  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

knot  of  cord  of  same  color  as  tlie  trimmings.     In  full  dress,  the  pelisse  is 
worn.  • 

In  the  cavalry,  the  number  of  the  regiment,  &c.,  is  indicated  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  pursued  in  the  infantry. 

All  officers  of  cavalry  wear  a  pistol  cartridge-box,  suspended  by  a 
shoulder-belt ;  it  is  richly  decorated  with  metal. 

Cossacks  of  the  guard. — Pants,  dark  blue,  with  a  red  stripe ;  coat,  dark 
blue ;  no  buttons ;  fastens  by  hooks ;  worsted  epaulettes,  without  bullion. 
Cylindrical  fur  shako,  without  visor;  double  pompon  on  the  left  side; 
cloth  bag  hanging  down  on  the  right  side ;  water-proof  cover. 

All  the  head-dresses  heretofore  mentioned  have  on  the  front  a  brass ' 
imperial  eagle,  6f  inches  high  and  6 J  inches  broad;  on  this  is  the  num- 
ber of  the  regiment. 

Dragoons  of  the  Cav^asus. — Light  gray  pants;  dark  gray  coat,  cut 
like  that  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  guard. 

Hat,  turbari-shaped,  with  a  crown  of  cloth,  and  a  broad  thick  band  of 
lamb's  wool. 

The  Cossacks  of  the  line  of  the  Caucasus,  most  of  the  other  Cossacks, 
and,  on  service,  most  of  the  regular  troops  serving  in  the  Caucasus,  wear 
the  hat  described  for  the  dragoons  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  dress  of  the  Cossacks  is  loose  and  easy;  generally  of  dark 
colors. 

The  Mussulmen  troops  wear  the  high,  pointed  Persian  cap  of  lamb's 
wool;  their  dress  is  cut  in  the  Persian  style,  and  is  generally  of  very 
bright  colors, — each  man  selecting  those  colors  which  suit  his  fancy. 

Artillery. — Dragoon  helmet;  coat  dark  green,  yellow  buttons,  black 
facings,  red  shoulder-straps.  Horse  artillery  have  brass  shoulder-scales, 
,  like  the  dragoonSj     Cossack  artillery  wear  the  Cossack  dress. 

Sappers. — Same  uniform  as  the  foot  artillery,  except  that  the  buttons 
are  white  and  the  belts  black. 

Gendarmes. — Dragoon  helmet;  light  blue, coat  and  pants;  white  but- 
tons ;  white  gauntlets. 

,The  train. — Gray  uniform,  with  blue  facings;  red  shoulder-straps; 
white  buttons  and  belts.     Officers'  servants  wear  the  uniform  of  the  train. 

INSPECTIONS. 

Independently  of  special  inspections  by  staff  officers,  every  regiment  i^ 
inspected  once  a  month  by  its  colonel,  as  often  by  the  general  of  brigade, 
3  or  4  times  a  year  by  the  general  of  division,  and  once  each  year  by  the 
general  commanding  the  army  corps. 

At  the  inspections  by  the  general  officers,  after  the  inspection  under 
arms,  the  men  are  .assembled  without  the  officers,  and  are  then  asked 
whether  they  have  any  complaints  to  make. 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY.  109 

The  aides  of  the  emperor,  of  the  minister  of  war,  &c.,  are  frequently 

sent  to  make  unexpected  inspections  of  distant  establishments. 

t 

QUARTERS. 

They  are  comfortable,  and  kept  in  good  order. 

The  men  have  wooden  or  iron  bunks;  single  iron  bunks  are  being 
generally  introduced.  Each  man  is  provided  with  a  straw  mattress  and 
pillow,  and  one  or  more  blankets,  according  to  the  season ;  the  bedding 
belongs  to  the  barracks,  and  not  to  the  men,  so  that  none  of  it  accom- 
panies the  men  when  they  change  quarters.  In  the  quarters  of  bands,  &c., 
are  tables  and  chairs. 

The  wooden  bunks  are  provided  with  dra^^ers ;  there  is  a  shelf  and  rack 
over  the  head  of  each  bed ;  the  arms  in  racks  along  the  walls.  In  quar- 
ters, there  are  always  sergeants  and  privates  of  the  day  on  duty,  with  side- 
arms.  Some  of-  the  quarters,  especially  in  new  barracks  for  the  special 
arms,  have  separate  mess-rooms. 

In  the  new  barracks,  and  in  some  of  the  old,  arrangements  for  the 
ablutions  of  the  men  are  provided  in  the  building. 

The  officers'  quarters  are  generally  good,  and  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 
provided  with  furniture  by  the  government. 

The  cavalry  quarters  are  sometimes  over  the  stables. 

TENTS. 

The  annexed  sketch  represents 
a  vertical  section  through  the 
«entre  of  a  tent;  they  are  square, 
with  a  pyramidal  roof.  They  are 
supported  by  a  centre  pole,  and  a 
short  po\e  at  each  angle  of  the 
roof.  When  the  arms  are  taken 
inside  the  tent,  they  are  tied 
around  the  centre  pole. 

In  permanent  camps  the  men  have  a  plank  banquette  bed,  and  usually 
dig  a  cellar  3'  deep,  banking  up  around  the  tent  with  the  earth  thus 
obtained. 

A  tent  is  pitched  by  5  men  in  3  minutes.  The  allowance  of  tents  is : 
1  for  each  field  officer,  1  for  every  two  company  officers,  1  for  every  15 
non-commissioned  officers  and  privates,  whether  of  infantry  or  cavalry. 

HOSPITALS. 

As  these  will  be  fully  considered  in  the  report  of  another  member  of 
the  commission,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  record  he7e  my  opinion  that  the 


110  THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

best  Russian  military  hospitals  are,  for  comfort,  convenience,  and  clean- 
liness, the  model  hospitals  of  the  world. 

In  all  of  them  the  utmost  order  and  cleanliness  are  preserved,  and  the 
greatest  attention  is  paid  to  the  sick. 

The  command,  control  of  the  police,  and  responsibility,  are  always  vested 
in  an  ofl&cer  of  the  line,  who  has  other  officers  as  assistants;  the  surgeons 
have  merely  to  prescribe,  order  the  diet,  &c.,  but  have  not  the  slightest 
military  authority  or  responsibility.  I  would  call  attention  to  this  system 
as  being  eminently  worthy  of  consideration,  in  the  event  of  the  establish- 
ment of  large  temporary  hospitals  during  a  war,  or  any  concentration  of 
a  large  number  of  troops. 

THE   ARTEL. 

This  is  a  species  of  company  fund,  belonging  in  common  to  all  the  non- 
commissioned officers  and  men  of  the  company.  It  is  formed  by  certain 
regular  stoppages  of  pay,  extra  allowances,  and  the  produte  of  extra  labor 
by  the  men,  whether  for  civilians,  as  sap  guards,  &c.,  or  otherwise.  These 
extra  labors  are  encouraged  wherever  circumstances  permit,  and  the  whole 
product  is  turned  into  the  artel.  By  means  of  this  fund  the  men  are 
provided  with  vegetables,  salt,  extra  meat,  oatmeal,  cleaning-utensils, 
wagons  and  horses  for  the  transportation  of  the  company  provisions,  &c. 

It  is  only  when  the  soldier  leaves  the  service  that  he  receives  his  share 
of  the  fund ;  this  individual  share  is  stated  to  amount  sometimes  to  more 
than  $100. 

The  artel  is  divided  into  two  parts,  or  funds :  one  serving  to  provide 
for  the  current  wants  of  the  men,  the  pther  to  pay  them  their  share  upon 
leaving. 

The  management  and  application  of  the  artel  are  intrusted  to  sergeants 
and  privates  elected  by  the  company. 

One  of  these  men  makes  the  daily  purchases  for  the  mess,  &c.;  being 
always  accompani*ed  and  watched  by  two  others,  whose  duty  it  is  to  protect 
the  interests  of  the  company. 

A  monthly  report  is  made  to  the  captain. 

RATIONS. 

The  daily  ration  consists  of  2f  pounds  of  bread,  half  a  pound  of  fresh 
meat,  salt,  oatmeal,  cabbage,  and  brandy.  The  bread,  the  brandy,  and 
one-half  the  meat,  are  furnished  by  the  government,  that  is  to  say,  always 
issued  in  kind;  the. rest  of  the  ration  is  purchased  by  means  of  the  artel; 
the  daily  sum  allowed  to  the  artel  for  this  purpose  varies  with  circum- 
stances. 

The  Russian  soldier  has,  habitually,  three  meals  per  day :  1  Breakfast, 
simply  of  bread  and  salt,  with  a  little  brandy.     2.  Dinner,  at  11  o'clock, 


THE    RUSSIAN  ARMY.  HI 

of  bread  and  soup,  made  of  meat,  cabbage,  &c.  3.  Supper,  at  4  o'clock, 
of  bread  and  soup,  or  oatmeal  porridge.  The  bread  is  brown ;  both  it  and 
the  soup  are  coarse  and  acid,  but  they  are  nutritious  and  plentiful;  the 
acidity  is  agreeable  to  the  taste  of  the  Russian. 

In  permanent  camps,  and  in  barracks,  the  cooking  is  by  company,  in 
large  boilers.     The  baking  is  done  by  men  detailed  permanently. 

In  barracks  the  men  usually  eat  in  their  own  rooms,  but  they  some- 
times have  mess-rooms ;  in  permanent  camps  messing-places  are  provided 
in  rear  of  the  kitchens,. the  seats  and  table  being  sodded  banks  of  earth, 
with  a  roof  of  boughs  or  thatching. 

Each  man  has  a  wooden  spoon,  and  there  is  a  soup-bowl  for  every  6 
men,  out  of  which  they  eat  in  common. 

No  portable  ovens  are  carried  on  the  march. 

Where  it  is  possible,  bakers  are  sent  on  two  days  in  advance  to  bake 
in  the  ordinary  ovens  of  the  villages ;  if  this  cannot  be  done,  they  either 
carry  flour  and  bake  it  in  temporary  ovens  of  wattling,  covered  with 
clay,  or  else  issue  biscuit. 

In  the  field  a  small  copper  kettle,  without  cover,  is  carried  for  every 
three  men. 

PAY. 

The  circumstances  in  which  the  Russian  troops  are  placed  are  so  totally 
different  from  those  of  our  own  army  as  to  render  entirely  useless  any 
attempt  at  a  comparison  of  the  respective  amounts  of  pay. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  state  that  the  pay  of  the  Russian  army  is  very 
low,  and  that  the  principle  is  recognized  of  increasing  the  pay,  of  both 
officers  and  men,  in  proportion  to  the  importance,  difficulty,  and  danger 
of  the  service  performed. 

The  captains  of  squadrons,  companies,  &c.,  are  responsible  for  the 
arms,  accoutrements,  spare  clothing,  &c.,  of  their  commands. 

As  the  militia  was  a  peculiar  body,  and  not  a  part  of  the  regular  organ- 
ization, but  a  new  feature  called  forth  by  the  exigencies  of  the  late  war, 
it  is  deemed  best  not  to  include  it  in  the  foregoing  general  description  of 
the  military  establishment. 

It  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  Russian  infantry,  which 
seems  to  be  its  appropriate  place. 


112 


THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


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THE    RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


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THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


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THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


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116  THE  ABMIES  OP  EUROPE. 


CHAPTEK  II. 

THE  INSTETJCTION  AND  TACTICS  OF  CAVALRY. 

The  Russian  cavalry  tactics  comprise  the  following  schools,  or  divi- 
sions of  instruction :  1.  The  school  of  the  recruit,  divided  into :  a. 
.Manage,  or  individual  equitation;  h.  Drill  in  single  rank;  c.  Sabre, 
lance,  carbine,  and  pistol  exercise.,  2,  The  school  of  the  platoon.  3. 
School  of  the  squadron.  4.  School  of  the  regiment.  5.  Evolutions  of 
the  line.  As  supplements  to  these,  are  the  regulations  for  service  in 
garrison  and  in  the  field ;  the  latter  being  divided  into  regulations  for 
field  service  during  peace,  and  those  for  time  of  war. 

It  is  proposed  to  give  in  this,  chapter  sufficiently  copious  extracts  from 
the  tactics  to  explain  the  system  of  instruction  and  its  peculiarities.  The 
sabre  exercise  is  presented  in  full.  The  subjects  2ifQ  presented  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  tactics ;  those  portions  being  omitted 
which  are  neither  new  nor  interesting.  Although  generally  condensing 
the  text,  I  have  endeavored  to  preserve  the  spirit  and  language  of  the 
original  Russian. 

I.  SCHOOL  OF  THE  RECRUIT. 

The  instruction  of  the  recruits  is  presumed  to  require  nine  months ; 
immediately  after  joining  the  regiment  or  depot,  they  are  placed  under 
the  charge  of  monitors,  selected  from  among  the  most  steady  and  in- 
telligent old  soldiers. 

\st  month.  The  recruits  are  taught  certain  religious  duties  and  the 
obligations  of  their  new  vocation.  The  monitors  impress  upon  them  the 
advantages  of  irreproachable  conduct,  and  the  consequences  of  negligence, 
evil  disposition,  and  crime.  They  are  made  acquainted  with  all  parts  of 
a  soldier's  uniform,  how  to  wear,  and  keep  it  in  order. 

2c?  month.  They  are  taught  how  to  clean  a  horse ;  are  made  acquainted 
with  the  names,  object,  and  manner  of  using  the  different  parts  of  the 
horse  equipment ;  are  taught  how  to  place  the  saddle,  (without  the  pack,) 
first  on  a  wooden  horse,  afterwards  on  the  animal  itself;  to  clean  their 
arms  and  take  them  to  pieces ;  and  they  commence  chanting  the  signals. 

^d  month.  They  are  taught  the  first  principles  of  dismounted  drill, 
beginning  with  the  facings  and  marching ;  to  load  without  the  motions ; 
the  principles  of  the  skirmish  drill,  and  of  duty  at  the  advanced  posts, 
whether  on  foot  or  mounted,  according  to  the  following  system  : — 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY.  117 

1.  The  instruction  commences  with  the  signals  and  the  movements  of 
skirmishers  without  arms ;  when  they  have  learned  to  load  without  the 
motions,  their  fire-arms  are  given  to  them  when  learning  the  duties  of 
advanced  posts. 

2.  The  most  simple  signals,  such  as  "common  time,"  "right  turn," 
&c.,  are  employed  at  first,  afterwards  passing  to  the  more  difficult. 

3.  In  all  the  lessons  the  proper  progression  is  observed,  never  advancing 
to  any  new  lesson  until  all  that  precedes  is  comprehended. 

4.  After  a  certain  amount  of  preliminary  instruction,  the  recruits  are 
divided  into  classes,  or  squads,  according  to  their  progress. 

5.  In  the  more  advanced  squads,  the  recruits  will  have  their  positions 
in  the  ranks  changed,  that  they  may  learn  the  duties  of  all  positions. 

6.  To  complete  the  instruction  in  the  duties  of  advanced  posts,  squads 
will  he  placed  in  front  of  each  other,  that  the  men  may  understand  the 
position  of  the  enemy  and  the  manner  of  applying  what  they  have  been 
taught. 

4ith  month.  The  instruction  of  the  preceding  month  is  continued  by 
drilling  the  recruits,  on  foot,  at  the  rank  and  platoon  drill  for  mounted 
troops.  At  the  beginning  of  this  month  they  are  taught  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  equitation  with  the  snaffle,  each  man  always  having  the  same 
quiet,  well-broken  horse.  The  men  are  not  required  to  maintain  a  correct 
seat  in  the  first  lessons,  and  the  observation  of  the  principles  is  insisted 
upon  only  when  they  can  sit  the  horse  without  fear  of  falling  off,  and  have 
acquired  a  certain  amount  of  self-confidence. 

6th  month.  Equitation  with  the  snaffle  is  continued.  The  men  are 
taught  the  facings  and  marching  on  foot  with  arms ;  the  use  of  arms  on 
foot,  beginning  with  the  sabre,  then  passing  to  the  fire-arms,  and  finally 
to  the  lance — for  troops  armed  with  that  weapon. 

Qth  month.  The  instruction  in  taking  apart  and  putting  together  the 
fire-arms  is  completed.  Equitation  with  the  curb,  without  arms,  is  com- 
menced by  all  sufficiently  instructed  in  riding  with  the  snaffle.  They 
are  at  the  same  time  taught  the  manner  of  bitting  a  horse,  packing  the 
valise  and  cartridge-box,  and  saddling  up  with  the  complete  pack. 

1th,  month.  Equitation  with  the  curb,  with  arms. 

8^^  month.  Full  instruction  in  the  rank,  platoon,  and  skirmish  drills, 
with  arms  and  mounted. 

^th  month.  Use  of  all  arms,  mounted. 

After  this  month  the  recruit  is  occupied  in  perfecting  himself  in  the 
instruction  prescribed  for  the  preceding  months.        4 

The  progression  herein  prescribed  is  to  be  carefully  observed;  great 
care  is  to  be  taken  not  to  exact  too  great  precision  at  first,  in  order  not  to 
disgust  the  recruits.  Each  drill  should  last  not  longer  than  from  one 
hour  to  one  hour  and  a  half.     Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  choice 


118  THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

of  instructors,  who  should  unite  patience  with  knowledge,  and  possess  the 
faculty  of  giving  clear  explanations. 

During  the  first  six  months  the  recruits  are  to  be  instructed  at  least 
twice  a  week  by  the  chaplain  in  their  religious  duties,  such  as  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Psalms,  &c. 
In  detached  squadrons  the  religious  instruction  is  given  by  the  sergeants. 

MANEGE   RIDING. 

This  should  be  limited  to  the  actual  necessities  of  the  service,  and  by 
the  natural  capacity  of  the  horse ;  therefore  more  is  required  of  the  non- 
commissioned officers  than  of  the  privates,  because  the  former  have  the 
best  riding-horses.     The  non-commissioned  officers  are  taught — 

1.  The  walk. 

2.  The  trot :  (a)  the  common  trot,  and  (b)  the  trot  out. 

3.  The  gallop,  on  either  foot. 

4.  The  charge. 

5.  To  rein  back. 

6.  The  right  and  left  turn,  right  about  and  left  about  turn,  in  place. 

7.  The  passage  to  the  right  and  left. 

8.  The  turns  and  abouts,  at  all  gaits;  at  a  gallop,  both  true  and  false 

9.  To  ride  in  circle  to  right  and  left,  at  all  gaits. 

10.  To  circle  back  to  rear  on  same  track,  at  all  gaits ;  at  a  gallop,  both 
true  and  false. 

11.  To  change  direction  across  the  riding-hall,  at  all  gaits. 

12.  To  change  foot  when  galloping  on  a  straight  line. 

13.  To  leap  ditches  and  fences. 

The  privates  are  taught  every  thing  prescribed  above,  with  the  following 
exceptions  :  they  are  not  required  to  change  foot  at  a  gallop,  nor  to  gallop 
false ;  it  is  only  at  a  walk  and  trot  that  they  ride  in  circle,  circle  back  to 
rear  on  the  same  track,  and  change  direction  in  the  riding-hall.  Never- 
theless, the  privates  having  the  best  horses  should  receive  the  instruction 
prescribed  for  the  non-commissioned  officers,  as  far  as  the  strength  and 
fitness  of  the  horses  and  the  aptness  and  intelligence  of  the  men  will 
permit.  Commanders  of  troops  should  never  require  of  the  men  more 
than  is  prescribed  in  these  instructions,  and  should  never  lose  sight  of 
the  preservation  of  their  horses ;  for  a  horse  in  good  order,  although  less 
perfectly  broken  to  the  rules  of  manage  riding,  is  preferable  to  one  per- 
fectly instructed  in  all  these  rules,  but  broken  down. 

The  recruits  are  parried  through  the  course  indicated  above,  at  first 
with  the  snaffle,  afterwards  with  the  curb.  The  squads  are  made  as  small 
as  the  available  number  of  instructors  will  permit,  and  the  movements  in 
the  riding-hall  are  few  in  number  and  simple  in  kind,  being  limited  to 
those  actually  necessary  for  the  purpose  in  view. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  119 


THE   GAITS. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  gaits :  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop. 

The  trot  is  of  two  kinds :  (a)  the  common  trot,  (6)  the  trot  out. 

The  charge  is  the  acceleration  of  the  gallop  to  the  utmost  power  of  the 
horse. 

At  a  walk  the  horse  travels  about  3i  miles  per  hour ;  at  the  common 
trot,  6f ;  at  the  trot  out,  9J;  at  the  gallop,  8. 

EQUITATION. 

The  instructor  must  never  allow  the  recruit  to  pass  from  one  lesson  to 
another  until  he  fully  understands  and  can  execute  all  that  precedes. 
When  the  recruit  has  learned  how  to  arrange  his  equipment,  to  take  care 
of  a  horse,  to  saddle  and  bridle  him,  he  takes  his  first  lessons  in  riding, 
on  a  quiet,  well-broken  horse.  The  first  lessons  are  given  with  the  snaffle; 
the  man  is  to  be  in  undress  uniform,  without  arms  or  accoutrements,  the 
horse  without  schabraque,  but  with  a  surcingle ;  in  the  first  lessons  with 
the  curb  the  recruit  is  without  arms  or  accoutrements,  then  with  both,  and 
finally  with  the  schabraque  and  full  pack.  In  the  beginning  the  recruit 
is  required  to  ride  with  stirrups  somewhat  shorter  than  the  proper  length, 
that  he  may  acquire  confidence  and  firmness  in  his  seat,  without  which 
the  fear  of  falling  from  his  horse  renders  him  inattentive  to  the  explana- 
tions of  the  instructor.  In  the  course  of  time,  as  he  progresses,  the 
stirrups  are  lengthened,  and  finally  he  is  required  to  ride  without  them, 
until  he  acquires  a  perfectly  firm  seat;  then  he  is  again  obliged  to  ride 
with  stirrups  an  inch  too  long,  and  is  thus,  in  the  course  of  several 
lessons,  brought  by  degrees  to  the  prescribed  length. 

It  is  necessary  to  explain  to  the  recruit  that  he  should  not  press  hard 
upon  the  stirrups,  or  thrust  them  forward,  but  allow  them  to  hang  ver- 
tically ;  also,  that  the  bottom  of  the  stirrup  should  never  be  under  the 
hollow  of  the  foot,  but  that  the  first  joint  of  the  great  toe  should  be 
against  the  inner  side  of  the  stirrup ;  in  other  words,  the  ball  of  the  foot 
rests  on  the  stirrup.  Spurs  are  given  to  the  recruit  when  he  is  fully  con- 
firmed in  his  seat,  with  and  without  stirrups. 

THE    SEAT. 

The  body  of  the  rider  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  two  are 
mova"ble  and  one  immovable :  one  of  the  first  consists  of  all  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  down  to  the  waist,  the  other  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
legs,  from  the  knee  down;  the  immovable  portion  is  from  the  waist 
to  the  knees.  (Fig.  5.)  The  cavalry  soldier  should  sit  square  on  the 
middle  of  the  saddle,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  presenting  a  free  and 
unconstrained  appearance,  the  chest  not  much  thrown  forward,  the  ribs 


120  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

resting  freely  on  the  hips,  the  waist  and  loins  not  stiffened,  and  thus 
not  exposed  to  tension  or  effort  from  the  motions  of  the  horse ;  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  should  lean  slightly  to  the  rear,  rather  than  forward ; 
the  thighs,  inclining  a  little  forward,  lie  flat  and  firmly  on  the  saddle, 

Fig.  5. 


covering  the  surcingle,  of  which  only  a  small  part,  behind  the  knee, 
should  be  seen  3  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  hanging  vertically  from  the 
knees,  touches  the  horse,  but  without  the  slightest  pressure ;  the  toes  are 
pointed  up,  without  constraint,  and  on  the  same  line  with  the  knees,  for, 
if  the  toes  are  turned  outward,  it  not  only  causes  the  horse  to  be  unneces- 
sarily pricked  by  the  spurs,  (especially  when  marching  in  line,)  but  the 
firmness  of  the  seat  is  lost  3  the  heels  should  be  |  (seven-eighths)  of  an 
inch  below  the  toes,  and  the  stirrups  so  adjusted  that,  when  the  rider 
raises  himself  on  them,  there  may  be  the  breadth  of  four  fingers  between 
the  crotch  and  the  saddle ;  to  make  this  adjustment,  when  the  recruit 
has  acquired  a  firm  and  correct  seat,  he  should,  without  changing  that 
seat,  push  the  bottom  of  the  stirrup  to  the  hollow  of  the  foot,  and  then, 
with  the  foot  horizontal,  feel  a  slight  support  from  the  stirrup ;  when 
this  is  accomplished,  he  replaces  the  foot  properly  in  the  stirrup,  and  the 
heel  will  then  be  1  of  an  inch  below  the  toes. 

To  give  the  recruit  a  correct  seat,  the  instructor,  having  caused  him  to 
mount,  seizes  the  lower  part  of  his  leg,  and  stretches  it  straight  towards 
the  fore-quarters  of  the  horse,  so  as-  to  bring  the  buttocks  of  the  rider 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


121 


square  on  the  saddle  -,  then,  resting  one  hand  on  the  man's  knee,  he 
seizes  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  with  the  other,  and  carries  back  the 
thigh  and  knee  so  as  to  bring  the  crotch  square  on  the  saddle,  the  thighs 
covering  the  surcingle,  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  from  the  knee  down, 
also  over  the  surcingle,  and  sees  that  the  recruit  does  not  sit  too  much 
on  his  crotch,  but  has  his  buttocks  well  under  him.  He  then  explains  to 
the  recruit  that  the  firmness  of  the  seat  consists  in  this :  that  the  rider 
grasps  the  horse  with  his  legs ; 

that  both  thighs  press  equally  ^^S-  6. 

upon  the  saddle,  in  conformity 
with  the  movements  of  the  body; 
and  that  the  general  movements 
of  the  body  and  thighs  must 
conform  to  those  of  the  horse. 
To  spare  the  horses,  and  explain 
more  readily  to  the  recruit  the 
principles  of  the  seat,  he  should 
at  first  sit  upon  a  wooden  horse, 
on  which  a  saddle  is  secured, 
(Fig.  6;)  on  this  he  should 
learn  to  carry  the  thighs  back, 
without  leaning  the  body  for- 
ward; at  the  same  time  he  is 
taught  how  to  hold  the  feet, 
without  allowing  him  to  place  them  in  the  stirrups,  for  this  is  one  of  the 
most  essential  conditions  for  a  good  seat. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Position  of  the  hands  and  arms  when  riding' with  the  maffle. 
Both  arms  free,  and  without  the  slightest  stiffness  in  the  shoulders ; 
the  elbows  bent;  the  upper  part  of  the  arms  a  little  forward  of  the  ver- 


122  .  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

tical;  the  forearms  resting  against  the  sides,  without  pressure;  both 
hands  raised  a  little  above  the  elbows,  but  not  higher  than  the  eyes  of 
the  horse ;  the  hands  five  or  six  fingers*  breadth  apart,  tlie  outer  hand 
higher  than  the  inner ;  the  units  on  the  prolongation  of  the  forearms  ; 
the  thumbs  on  top,  and  not  turned  inwards ;  the  manner  of  holding  the 
reins  is  shown  in  Figs.  7  and  8. 

Position  of  the  hands  and  arms  when  riding  with  the  curb. — (Fig.  5.) 

The  left  arm  free,  and  without  the  slightest  stiffness ;  the  elbow  bent, 
and  on  the  vertical  line  from  the  shoulder  to  the  hip;  the  forearm 
touches  the  side,  without  pressure;  the  hand  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
forearm,  and  two  or  three  fingers'  breadth  above  the  pommel ;  the  curb- 
reins  pass  upward  through  the  hand,  and  over  the  forefinger,  covered  by 
all  the  four  fingers,  the  nails  opposite  the  bottom  of  the  jacket,  and  in 
such  a  position  that  the  rider  can  see  the  little-finger  nail  by  casting  his 
eyes  on  the  hand ;  the  snaffle-reins  pass  over  the  forefinger,  and  down- 
wards through  the  hand,  lying  flat  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand ;  the  thumb 
presses  on  top  of  the  reins ;  the  right  hand  rests,  with  the  knuckles,  on 
the  seam  of  the  pants,  on  the  right  thigh,  seven  inches  below  the  hip, 
the  fist  closed,  except  the  thumb,  which  lies  on  the  seam,  pointing 
upwards ;  the  elbow  on  the  line  of  the  shoulders. 

For  the  lessons  with  the  snaffle,  the  horse  is  conducted  to  the  ground 
without  passing  the  reins  over  his  head,  they  are  passed  over  just  before 
placing  the  left  foot  in  the  stirrup ;  in  the  lessons  with  the  curb,  the 
horse  is  conducted  to  the  ground  with  the  reins  already  passed  over  the 
neck ;  in  both  cases  the  reins  are  held  in  the  left  hand  while  mounting. 

In  the  first  lessons  with  the  curb,  the  curb-chain  is  hooked  on  the 
ground,  under  the  direction  of  the  instructor;  it  is  of  such  a  length  that 
two  fingers  may  be  laid  flat  between  it  and  the  chin. 

All  individual  turns  and  abouts,  from  a  halt,  are  made  by  turning  the 
horse  on  his  hind-legs  as  a  pivot ;  in  wheels  by  platoon,  or  by  squadron, 
on  a  fixed  pivot,  the  pivot-man  turns  in  this  manner.  Turns  on  a  march 
are  made  on  an  arc  with  a  radius  of  three  yards. 

THE  DRILL  IN  SINGLE  RANK. 
This  is  commenced  when  the  men  are  well  instructed  in  the  individual 
riding  drill ;  from  six  to  fifteen  men  are  formed  in  one  rank,  with  a 
non-commissioned  officer  or  old  soldier  on  each  flank.  The  recruits  first 
execute  this  drill  on  foot,  and  are  not  required  to  execute  it  on  horseback 
until  they  understand  its  principles  fully.  When  mounted,  the  men  are 
at  first  placed  two  yards  apart,  and  as  they  progress  the  files  are  closed 
in,  until  they  touch  stirrups,  towards  the  guide.  The  instruction  is 
commenced  in  open  order,  to  accustom  each  man  to  observe  the  rules  for 


THE    RUSSIAN  ARMY.  •    123 

moving  straight  forward,  to  oblige  him  to  conduct  his  horse  independ- 
ently of  his  neighbor,  and  to  force  him  to  pay  more  attention;  for,  in 
close  order,  the  men,  by  blindly  following  the  movements  of  their  com- 
rades, might  execute  many  movements  satisfactorily  without  understand- 
ing them,  and  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  instructor  to  ascertain  the 
proficiency  and  progress  of  each  man.  Every  movement  should  be 
executed  first  at  a  walk,  afterwards  at  the  other  gaits.  The  recruits 
should  be  mixed  with  old  soldiers  in  the  ranks,  to  prevent  mistakes  from 
extending  through  the  whole  rank ;  but  the  instructor  must  watch  care- 
fully that  the  old  soldiers  do  not  prompt  the  recruits. 

At  the  commencement  of  every  drill  in  single  rank,  the  recruits  should 
be  required  to  execute  some  of  the  lessons  of  the  individual  drill ;  so  that 
correctness  of  riding,  and  facility  of  executing  the  movements  in  close 
order,  may  always  be  preserved. 

The  single  rank  drill  comprises  all  the  movements  of  the  platoon  drill 
that  can  be  executed  in  one  rank. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  SABRE. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  the  instruction  of  the 
cavalry  soldier;  for  the  sabre  is  the  arm  common  to  all  cavalry. 

The  recruit  should  go  through  the  whole  exercise  not  less  than  once  a 
week. 

The  rules  for  the  use  of  the  sabre  are  divided  into  two  parts :  (a)  the 
manual ;  (6)  the  sabre  exercise. 

The  use  of  the  sabre  is  taught  by  means  of  commands  and  numbers. 
The  commands  of  execution  are  called  timesy  and  these  times  are  sub- 
divided into  particular  movements  called  motions.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  instruction,  the  instructor  calls  the  numbers  and  executes 
the  motions  himself;  when  the  recruit  becomes  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
the  weapon,  he  is  obliged  to  execute  the  motions  and  call  the  numbers 
simultaneously  with  the  instructor;  after  that,  the  recruit  calls  the  num- 
bers and  executes  the  motions  for  himself;  finally,  he  executes  the 
motions  without  calling  the  numbers. 

The  use  of  the  sabre  is  first  taught  to  single  men  on  foot,  then  by 
uniting  several  men,  and  finally  on  horseback. 

THE  SABRE  MANUAL. 

This  is  so  similar  to  that  in  use  in  the  United  States  service  as  to  ren- 
der it  unnecessary  to  describe  it  in  this  report,  with  the  exception  of  two 
peculiarities,  viz.:  when  the  sabre  is  at  a  carry,  both  the  little  finger  and 
that  next  to  it  are  outside  of  the  gripe ;  there  is  a  position  of  reversed 
sabre,  for  funerals,  as  follows  :  the  blade  passed  between  the  left  arm  and 
the  body,  point  to  the  rear,  edge  to  the  left,  the  flat  of  the  blade  resting 


124 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


on  the  left  forearm,  close  to  the  guard,  the  gripe  held  lightly  by  the 
right  hand,  the  blade  horizontal. 

THE  SABRE  EXERCISE. 

This  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  in  open  order ^  the  second  in 
close  order.  The  first  part  is  subdivided  into  :  (a)  the  sabre  exercise  for 
the  attack  ;  (6)  thatybr  the  retreat. 

I.  THE  SABRE  EXERCISE  IN  OPEN  ORDER. 

A.  In  the  attack. 

The  instruction  should  be  at  first  given  to  single  men,  or  small  squads, 
on  foot ;  afterwards,  in  the  same  manner,  mounted ;  first  at  a  halt,  then 
in  motion — i.e.  first  at  a  walk,  then  at  a  trot,  gallop,  and  charge. 

The  use  of  the  sabre  on  foot  forms  no  part  of  the  duty  of  a  cavalry 
soldier,  and  is  given  only  as  preparatory  to  its  use  on  horseback,  which  is 
its  proper  object. 

Fig.  9. 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  30. 


Guard. 

In  giving  the  instruction,  it  should  be  explained  that  the  following 
movements  constitute  the  basis  of  the  system :  1,  the  moulinets ;  2,  one 
thrust;  3,  three  cuts;  4,  four  parries;  all  the  other  movements  given  are 
merely  combinations  or  modifications  of  these. 

In  the  motions  of  the  sabre,  it  is,  as  a  general  rule,  grasped  by  the 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY.  125 

right  hand,  the  four  fingers  encircling  the  gripe,  the  thumb  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  resting  on  the  forefinger,  (fig.  9 ;)  but  if  the  soldier  is  to  thrust, 
he  places  the  thumb  on  the  back  of  the  gripe,  the  end  of  the  thumb 
against  the  guard. 

All  the  motions  are  made  from  the  position  of  "  guard." 
The  recruit  being  at  a  carry,  to  cause  him  to  assume  the  position  of 
guard,  the  instructor  commands  : 

GUARD. — 1  time. 

(Fig.  10.)  Carry  the  right  hand  about  10  inches  in  front  of  the  right 
hip,  the  blade  in  an  oblique  position,  the  point  a  little  raised,  the  edge 
upwards,  the  back  of  the  blade  resting  in  the  hollow  of  the  left  arm,  as 
near  the  body  as  possible.  In  this  position  the  right  hand  should  be 
without  the  slightest  efibrt  or  constraint,  and  should  not  feel  the  weight 
of  the  sabre,  which  is  supported  by  the  left  arm. 

(Fig.  11.)  In  the  instruction  on  foot  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  recruit 
a  position  corresponding  to  that  on  horseback;  therefore,  at  the  command, 
guard,  he  carries  his  right  foot  18  inches  from  the  left,  the  heels  on  the 
same  line,  the  weight  of  the  body  supported  equally  on  both  legs,  which 
are  a  little  bent  at  the  knees ;  at  the  same  time  he  moves  his  left  forearm 
and  hand  to  the  front,  placing  them  as  if  holding  the  reins  when  mounted, 
and  holds  the  right  hand  and  sabre  as  already  prescribed.  This  position, 
once  taken,  is  maintained  during  the  whole  lesson. 

The  recruit  returns  to  a  carry,  as  in  the  United  States  sabre  exercise, 
except  that  when  at  a  carry  both  the  little  finger  and  that  next  to  it  are 
outside  of  the  gripe. 

THE   MOULINETS. 

The  lessons  in  the  sabre  exercise  are  commenced  with  the  moulinets, 
for  the  following  reasons :  1,  they  accustom  the  men  to  the  circular  move- 
ments of  the  edge  of  the  sabre,  necessary  in  all  the  motions ;  2,  they  give 
to  the  hand  the  strength  and  address  necessary  for  handling  the  sabre ; 
3,  they  accustom  the  horses  to  the  sabre. 

PREPARE   TO   MOULINET. — 1  time. 

(Fig.  12.)  At  this  command,  the  recruit,  being  at  guard,  extends  the 
right  arm  to  its  full  length,  at  the  same  time  raising  it  so  as  to  bring 
the  hand  in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  head,  as  high  as  the  eyes,  point 
to  the  front,  edge  upwards,  blade  horizontal,  and  perpendicular  to  the 
breast. 

All  the  moulinets  are  made  from  the  position  just  described,  and  upon 
their  completion  the  position  of  guard  is  resumed. 

The  moulinets  are  made  to  the  left  and  to  the  right :  i.e.  the  circular 


126 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


movement  of  the  sabre  passes  on  the  left  or  on  the  right  side  of  the 

horse's  neck. 

There  are  two  moulinets  : 
the  first  passes  downwards 
along  the  body ;  the  second 
passes  upwards  along  the 
body. 

The  recruit  being  in  the 
position  of  ^^  prepare  to 
moulinetj'  to  execute  the 
first  moulinet,  the  instructor 
commands : 

FIRST   MOULINET. 

Make  a  moulinet  to  the 
left, — i.e.  on  the  left  side  of 
the  horse's  neck, — raising 
the  blade  with  the  edge 
towards  .the  body,  the  cir- 
cular motion  passing  downwards  along  the  left  shoulder ;  and  after  that, 
make  a  right  moulinet, — i.e.  on  the  right  side  of  the  horse's  neck, — raising 
the  point,  the  edge  towards  the  body,  and  the  circular  movement  passing 
downwards  along  the  right  shoulder ;  then  another  moulinet  to  the  left, 
then  again  to  the  right,  and,  in  the  same  manner,  alternately  on  each 
side,  until  the  command,  guard,  when  the  position  of  guard  is  resumed. 
The  recruit  being  in  the  position  of  ^^ prepare  to  raoulinet^^  to  cause  him 
to  execute  the  second  mouUnetj  the  instructor  commands : 

SECOND   MOULINET. 

Make  a  moulinet  to  the  right,  turning  the  wrist  a  little  outwards, 
lowering  the  point,  edge  from  the  body,  and  passing  the  blade  upwards, 
along  the  right  shoulder ;  then  make  a  similar  moulinet  to  the  left ;  and 
continue  in  the  same  manner,  alternately  on  each  side,  until  the  command, 
guard. 

In  the  execution  of  the  moulinets  neither  the  elbow  nor  shoulder  should 
bend,  but  the  movement  is  to  be  effected  by  the  hand  and  wrist  alone; 
the  sabre  should  pass  as  far  as  possible  from  the  horse's  head,  to  avoid 
striking  him,  and  as  near  as  possible  to  the  man's  shoulder;  the  left  arm 
is  not  moved. 

At  the  commencement  the  instructor  requires  the  recruit  to  count  one 
at  the  end  of  each  left  moulinet,  two  at  the  end  of  each  right  moulinet, 
or  the  reverse ;  finally  requiring  him  to  accelerate  the  motion  of  the  sabre 
to  the  utmost. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  127 

THE   BLOWS. 

Blows  are  of  two  kinds,  thrusts  and  cuts. 

They  may  be  given  in  four  directions :  1.  To  the  right  front j  i.e. 
against  an  antagonist  obliquely  in  front  of  the  right  shoulder;  2.  To  the 
left  front;  3.  To  the  right;  4.  To  the  left. 

The  thrusts  and  cuts  should  always  be  given  together,  i.e.  first  a  thrust 
and  then  a  cut.     After  each  blow  the  position  of  guard  is  resumed. 

For  the  blow  to  the  right  front,  the  instructor  commands : 

RIGHT  FRONT  THRUST  AND  CUT. — 1  tiTne,  4  motions. 
Fig.  13.  Right  front  thrust.  Fig.  14. 


1.  At  the  last  part  of  the  command,  which  is,  cut,  turn  the  eyes  to  the 
right  front,  raise  the  hand  to  the  height  of  the  right  ear,  and  seven  inches 
from  it,  the  shoulder  and  elbow  thrown  well  back,  the  thumb  on  the  back 
of  the  gripe,  point  falling  a  little  below  the  horizontal,  and  directed  to  the 
right  front,  edge  upwards.     (Fig.  13.) 

2.  Extend  the  arm  rapidly  to  its  full  length,  thrusting  to  the  right 
front,  i.e.  somewhat  to  the  right  of  the  horse's  right  ear;  at  the  end  of 
the  thrust  the  right  arm  and  the  sabre  are  horizontal ;  the  point,  if  any 
thing,  a  little  below  the  horizontal.     (Fig.  14.) 

3.  Without  moving  the  arm,  replace  the  thumb  on  the  side  of  the 
gripe,  turn  the  hand  so  as  to  bring  the  nails  upwards,  at  the  same  time 
carrying  the  point  well  to  the  right ;  then,  by  a  turn  of  the  wrist,  cut 
horizontally  from  right  to  left. 

4.  Turn  the  nails  downwards,  and  by  a  turn  of  the  wrist  cut  hori- 
zontally from  left  to  right.     At  once  resume  the  position  of  guard. 

LEFT    FRONT   THRUST   AND    CUT. 1  time,  4  motions. 

(Figs.  15  and  16.)  Executed  as  the  preceding  blow,  with  the  following 
differences  :  in  the  1st  motion  the  arm  is  raised  as  prescribed  for  the  blow 


128 


THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


to  the  right  front,  but  the  point  and  eyes  are  directed  to  the  left  front; 
in  the  2d  motion,  thrust  to  the  left  front,  i.e.  somewhat  to  the  left  of  the 
Fig.  15.  Left  front  thrust.  Fig.  16. 


horse's  left  ear ;  the  3d  and  4th  motions,  as  in  the  blow  to  the  right  front, 
but  given  on  the  left  side  of  the  horse's  head. 

RIGHT  THRUST  AND  CUT. — 1  timej  4  motions. 
Fig.  17.  Right  thrust.  Fig.  18. 


(Figs.  17  and  18.)  1.  At  the  last  part  of  the  command,  which  is,  cut^ 
half  face  to  the  right  in  the  saddle,  at  the  same  time  place  the  arm  and 
sabre  in  the  position  of  first  motion  of  right  front  blow,  except  that  the 
eyes  and  point  are  directed  tO  the  right. 

2.  Thrust  to  the  right,  in  a  direction  as  nearly  as  possible  perpendicular 
to  the  side  of  the  horse. 

3  and  4.  As  in  the  blow  to  the  right  front,  except  that  the  cuts  are 
made  in  a  direction  to  the  right  of  the  horse,  and  that,  on  resuming  the 
guard,  the  recruit  will  sit  straight  in  the  saddle. 

LEFT  THRUST  AND  CUT. — 1  time,  4  motions. 

Executed  as  the  preceding  blow,  with  the  difference  that  it  is  made  on 
the  left  side  of  the  horse ;  therefore,  in  the  first  motion  the  recruit  makes 


THE   RUSSIAN   A»MY. 


129 


a  half  face  to  the  lefk  in  his  saddle,  and  directs  his  eyes  and  point  to  the 
left,  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  his  horse ;  in  the  third  and  fourth 
motions  he  gives  the  horizontal  cuts,  as  in  the  last  blow,  but  on  the  left, 
and  finally  returns  to  the  guard,  resuming  his  seat  square  in  the  saddle. 

THE   PARRIES. 

The  parries  are  all  made  from  the  position  of  guard.  After  every 
parry  the  position  of  guard  is  at  once  resumed,  unless  it  is  to  be  followed 
at  once  by  a  cut  or  thrust. 

There  are  four  parries :  (a)  that  for  the  right  side,  or  the  right  parry; 
(b)  that  for  the  left  side,  or  left  parry;  (c)  that  for  the  head,  or  head 
parry;  (c?)  that  for  the  left  shoulder  and  rear,  or  left  rear  parry. 

RIGHT  PARRY. — 1  timej  2  motions. 

(Fig.  19.)  1.  Grrasp  the  sabre  firmly,  extend  the  arm  to  the  right,  the 
hand  moving  horizontally,  the  point  at  the  same  time  describing  a  semi- 
circle upwards,  and,  with  the  edge  to  the  right,  parry  as  strongly  as  pos- 
sible the  blow  aimed  at  the  right  side. 

2.  Resume  the  position  of  guard. 

Fig.  19.— Right  parry.  Fig.  20.— Left  parry. 


LEFT  PARRY. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

(Fig.  20.)  1.  Raise  the  hand  above,  and  about  seven  inches  in  front  of, 
the  eyes,  the  elbow  somewhat  bent,  edge  to  the  left,  point  downwards, 
and  about  fourteen  inches  outside  of  the  horse's  left  shoulder,  and  parry 
as  strongly  as  possible  the  blow  aimed  at  the  left  side. 

2.  Return  to  the  position  of  guard. 

HEAD  PARRY. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

(Fig.  21.)  1.  Raise  the  arm  quickly  to  its  full  length,  the  hand  a  little 
to  the  right,  the  sabre  a  little  above  the  head,  edge  upwards,  blade  hori- 
zontal and  parallel  to  the  shoulders. 

2.  Resume  the  guard. 


130  THE    A  JIM  IE  S    OF    EUROPE. 

In  this  parry  the  sabre  should  be  grasped  with  the  utmost  firmness,  to 
prevent  its  being  beaten  down. 

Fig.  21. — Head  parry.  Fig.  22.— Left  rear  parry. 


LEFT  REAR  PARRY. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

(Fig.  22.)  1.  Turn  the  head  to  the  left  and  rear,  carry  the  right  hand  to 
the  left  shoulder,  on  which  rest  the  back  of  the  blade,  the  point  to  the 
left  rear,  the  edge  upwards. 

2.  Resume  the  guard. 

PARRIES   AND   BLOWS. 

When  the  recruit  is  well  instructed  in  the  blows  and  parries  separately, 
he  should  be  taught  to  combine  them,  in  the  following  manner : — 

RIGHT  PARRY  AND  CUT. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

1.  Parry  to  the  right,  as  already  explained. 

2.  Cut  once  horizontally  from  right  to  left,  as  prescribed  in  the  third 
motion  of  the  blow  to  the  right  front,  and  resume  the  guard. 

LEFT  PARRY  AND  CUT. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

1.  Parry  to  the  left,  as  already  explained. 

2.  Cut  once  horizontally  from  right  to  left,  as  prescribed  in  the  third 
motion  of  the  blow  to  the  left  front,  and  resume  the  guard. 

HEAD  PA&RY  AND  THRUST. — 1  time,  3  motions. 

1.  Parry  for  the  head,  as  already  explained. 

2.  Place  the  arm  and  sabre  in  the  position  of  the  1st  motion  of  blow 
to  right  front. 

3.  Thrust  to  right  front,  and  resume  the  guard. 

THE    BLOWS   AGAINST   INFANTRY. 

The  cavalry  soldier,  when  engaged  against  infantry,  in  open  order. 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


131 


should  endeavor  to  parry  the  bayonet  on  his  right  side,  cut  to  the  right 
and  left,  and  thrust  to  the  right. 

AGAINST   INFANTRY — RIGHT   PARRY  AND   CUT. — 1  timej  3  motions. 

(Figs.  23  and  24.)    1.  Half  face  to  the  right  in  the  saddle,  carry  the 
right  hand  to  the  right  and  rear,  arm  nearly  extended,  sabre  grasped 

Against  infantry. — Right  parry. 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


jSrmly,  hand  as  high  as  the  head,  and  over  the  croup  of  the  horse ;  nails 
outwards,  edge  to  the  rear,  point  upwards,  blade  vertical. 

2.  Lower  the  point  towards  the  rear,  and  parry  the  bayonet  with  the 
back  of  the  blade  by  a  rapid  circular  movement  of  the  sabre  and  arm,  so 
that,  at  the  end  of  the  movement,  the  right  hand  may  be  in  front  of  the 
left  shoulder  as  high  as  the  head,  and  10  inches  from  it,  the  nails  towards 
the  breast,  point  of  sabre  upwards,  edge  to  the  front. 

3.  Bear  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  right  stirrup,  bend  the  body 
well  down  to  the  right,  and,  by  a  movement  of  the  whole  arm  from  the 
shoulder,  cut  downwards,  from  the  head  of  the  horse  towards  the  croup ) 
at  once  resume  the  guard. 

AGAINST   INFANTRY — ^LEFT    CUT. — 1  timej  1  motion. 

(Fig.  25.)    Half  face  to  the  left  in  the  saddle,  extend  the  right  arm  to 
its  full  length,  the  hand  opposite  to  and  above  the  eyes,  edge  somewhat 
to  the  left,  the  point  a  little  to  the  front;  then,  by  a  movement  of  the 
whole  arm  from  the  shoulder,  cut  circularly  downwards,  on  the  left  side ; 
of  the  horse ;  at  once  resume  the  guard. 


132  *  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

AGAINST   INFANTRY — RIGHT   AND   LEFT   CUT. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

1.  Half  face  to  the  right  in  the  saddle,  and  take  the  position  described 
at  the  end  of  2d  motion  of  the  "right  parry  and  cut"  against  infantry, 
and  at  once  cut  against  infantry,  as  prescribed  in  the  3d  motion. 

2.  Instead  of  resuming  the  guard,  at  once  half  €ace  to  the  left,  and 
act  as  prescribed  for  the  left  cut  against  infantry ;  resume  the  guard. 


Fig.  25. — Against  infantry.        I  Fig.  26. — Against  infantry. 

— Left  cut  n  — Right  thrust. 


AGAINST   INFANTRY — BRIGHT   CUT   AND   THRUST. — 1  time,  2  motions. 

(Fig.  26.)  1.  Half  face  to  the  right  in  the  saddle,  and  act  as  directed 
in  the  first  motion  of  the  preceding  blow. 

2.  Bear  the  weight  on  the  right  stirrup,  bend  well  down  to  the  right, 
extend  the  right  arm  well  downwards,  and,  with  the  back  of  the  sabre 
upwards,  thrust  forward  as  nearly  horizontally  as  possible;  at  once  resume 
the  guard. 

In  these  cuts  the  recruit  should  sit  firmly  in  the  saddle,  and  make  the 
half  faces  to  the  right  and  left  quickly,  easily,  and  without  constraint. 

B.  The  sabre  exercise  for  the  retreat. 

In  retreat  the  cavalry  soldier  should  cut  his  pursuer  to  the  right  rear. 

RIGHT  REAR  CUT. — 1  time,  1  motion. 

(Fig.  27.)  Half  face  to  the  right  in  the  saddle,  cast  the  eyes  well  to 
the  right  rear,  raise  the  right  arm  so  as  to  bring  the  hand  opposite  to  and 
at  the  height  of  the  left  shoulder,  edge  to  the  front,  point  upwards,  cut 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


133 


horizontally  to  the  rear  by  a  movement  of  the  sabre  from  left  to  right; 
at  once  resume  the  guard. 

Fig^  2  7.— Right  rear  cut  Fig.  28.— Charge  sabre. 


BIGHT   REAR CUT   TWICE. 

As  the  last  blow,  except  that  the  cut  is  repeated  before  resuming  the 
position  of  guard. 

TO   rORM   A   SQUADRON   FOR   THE   SABRE   EXERCISE. 

Preparatory  to  the  sabre  exercise,  the  squadron,  whether  mounted  or 
on  foot,  should  first  of  all  be  ordered  to  call  off.  For  this  purpose  the 
instructor  commands : 

FOR   SABRE   EXERCISE CALL   OFF. 

At  this  command,  each  man  of  the  right  file  turns  his  head  to  the  left, 
that  his  comrades  may  hear  him,  and,  in  a  loud,  distinct  tone,  calls  out 
20,  (twenty;)  the  men  of  the  2d  file  call  out  15;  those  of  the  3d  file, 
10;  the  4th,  5;  the  5th,  '' stand  fast ;"  the  6th,  20;  the  7th,  15;  the 
8th,  10;  the  9th,  5;  the  10th,  ^^  stand  fast  ;^'  and  in  the  same  manner 
through  the  squadron  to  its  left  flank. 

These  numbers  signify  that  at  the  command  "  sabre  exercise — march," 
(which  will  be  explained  hereafter,)  each  man  is  to  march  forward  the 
number  of  paces  he  called  out,  i.e.  20,  15,  10,  and  5  paces,  respectively, 
for  the  first  four  men  of  every  five,  the  fifth  standing  fast.  The  non- 
commissioned officers  in  the  front  rank  are  to  move  forward  25  paces ; 
those  in  the  rear  rank  are  to  rein  back  into  the  line  of  file-closers,  and 
with  them  fall  back  5  paces  behind  the  rear  rank.  Each  man  turns  his 
head  to  the  front  as  soon  as  he  has  called  off.     If  the  sabre  exercise  is  to 


134  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

be  performed  in  presence  of  an  inspector,  the  calling  oflf  is  done  before 
his  arrival.  When  the  exercise  is  to  be  commenced,  the  front  rank  is 
marched  forward  25  paces ;  the  instructor  then  commands : 

SABRE   EXERCISE — MARCH. 

At  this  command  the  men  take  their  distances  by  moving  forward,  in  each 
rank,  the  number  of  paces  they  respectively  called  off,  as  already  explained. 
When  the  exercise  is  finished,  the  instructor  commands : 

TO   YOUR   POSTS — MARCH. 

At  this  command,  the  men  who  advanced  20  paces  stand  fast,  the 
others  move  up,  and  dress  on  them  in  each  rank. 

The  non-commissioned  ofiicers  of  the  front  rank  rein  back  5  paces  into 
their  places.     The  instructor  then  closes  ranks  by  the  usual  commands. 

During  the  exercise  the  officers  place  themselves  15  paces  from  the 
front  rank,  facing  it. 

THE    SABRE    EXERCISE    IN    CLOSE   ORDER. 

When  attacking  in  close  order,  the  sabre  should  always  be  carried  in 
the  position  of  charge  sabre. 

CHARGE  SABRE. — 1  timej  1  motion. 

(Fig.  28.)  Raise  the  right  arm  and  extend  it  to  the  front,  the  hand 
opposite  the  right  eye,  the  blade  perpendicular  to  the  breast,  the  edge 
upwards,  the  point  a  little  raised. 

To  pass  from  this  position  to  that  of  guard,  the  command  is,  guard. 
If  necessary,  the  command,  carri/  sabres,  may  be  given  at  once,  without 
first  coming  to  the  guard. 

In  close  order,  all  the  motions  of  the  sabre  are  made  from  the  position 
of  charge  sabre,  and  on  the  completion  of  every  movement  the  men  at 
once  return  to  that  position. 

RIGHT   FRONT   THRUST,  PARRY,  AND   CUT. — 1  time,  4  motions. 

1  and  2.  The  recruit,  being  in  the  position  of  charge  sabre,  at  once 
thrusts  to  the  right  front,  as  prescribed  in  open  order. 

3.  Makes  the  head  parry,  as  in  open  order. 

4.  Cuts  vertically  downward,  on  the  right  of  the  horse's  neck,  and 
resumes  the  position  of  charge  sabre. 

LEFT    FRONT    CUT,  PARRY,  AND    THRUST. 1  time,  4  motions. 

1.  Commence  the  cut  by  the  2d  motion  of  the  2d  moulinet :  i.e.  lower 
the  sabre  along  the  left  side  of  the  horse's  neck,  raise  it  along  the  left 
shoulder,  cut  downwards  to  the  left  front,  and  resume  the  position  of 
charge  sabre. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


135 


2.  Make  the  head  parry. 

3  and  4.  Thrust  to  the  right  front,  and  resume  the  position  of  charge 
sabre. 

RIGHT   AND   LEFT   FRONT   THRUST. 1  time,  2  motions. 

1.  Thrust  once  to  the  right  front. 

2.  Thrust  once  to  the  left  front,  and  resume  the  position  of  charge 
sabre. 

In  close  order,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  make  the  cuts  by  the 
wrist  alone,  without  moving  the  arm;  they  should  be  made  as  near  the 
horse's  neck  as  possible,  to  avoid  striking  the  next  man,  or  his  horse. 

As  a  conclusion  to  the  sabre  exercise,  all  the  commands  are  here  given, 
in  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  taught. 


Commands  for  the 

Guard. 

Prepare  to  moulinet. 

First  moulinet. 

Guard. 

Prepare  to  moulinet. 

Second  moulinet. 

Guard. 

Right  front  thrust  and  cut. 

Left  front  thrust  and  cut. 

Right  thrust  and  cut. 

Left  thrust  and  cut. 

Right  parry. 


sahre  eocercise  in  open  order. 

Left  parry. 

Head  parry. 

Left  rear  parry. 

Right  parry  and  cut. 
•  Left  parry  and  cut. 

Head  parry, and  thrust. 

Against  infantry — right  parry  and  cut. 

Against  infantry — left  cut. 

Against  infantry — right  and  left  cut. 

Against  infantry — right  cut  and  thrust. 

Right  rear  cut. 

Right  rear  cut  twice. 


Commands  for  the  sahre  exercise  in  close  order. 
Charge  sabre.  Left  front  cut,  parry,  and  thrust. 

Right  front  thrust,  parry,  and  cut.      Right  and  left  front  thrust. 


MISCELLANEOUS,  FROM   THE   SCHOOL   OF   THE   RECRUIT. 


(Fig.  29.)  When  loading  and  firing  thei  car- 
bine, the  snaffle-reins  are  knotted  around  the 
curb-reins,  and  allowed  to  hang  loosely;  the 
curb-reins  are  passed  around  the  middle  finger 
of  the  left  hand,  thus  leaving  the  others  free  to 
manage  the  carbine. 

When  the  carbine  is  cast  about,  the  butt  is 
thrown  on  the  right  side  of  the  horse,  the  left 
hand  seizing  it  just  above  the  tail-band. 

Skirmishers  armed  with  lances,  when  using 
the  carbine,  carry  lances  at  a  rest  and  sabres  in 


Fig.  29.— Manner  of  hold- 
ing the  reins  when  using  the 
carbine. 


136  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

the  scabbards;  skirmishers  who  have  no  lances  have  the  sabre  drawn 
and  suspended  from  the  right  wrist  by  the  sabre-knot  when  using  their 
carbines. 

THE   CHARGE. 

At  the  command,  charge,  the  rider,  without  changing  his  seat,  presses 
a  little  harder  on  the  stirrups,  throws  the  weight  of  his  body  backwards, 
and  prepares  the  horse,  as  'explained,  for  the  gallop;  then,  giving  him  a 
free  rein,  he  urges  him  to  his  greatest  speed  by  the  pressure  of  his  legs 
and  spurs. 

SCHOOL   OF   THE   PLATOON. 

In  the  tactics,  the  platoon  is  supposed  to  consist  of  12  or  more  files, 
always  in  two  ranks.  The  rear  rank  is  one  pace  (3  feet)  from  the  front 
rank,  and  the  file-closers  at  the  same  distance  behind  the  rear  rank. 

In  addition  to  the  12  files,  there  are  supposed  to  be  with  the  platoon 
1  officer  as  instructor,  1  non-commissioned  officer  on  each  flank  of  the 
front  rank,  2  non-commissioned  officers  as  file-closers,  and  1  trumpeter. 

Preparatory  to  mounting,  the  platoon  being  formed  with  closed  ranks, 
the  men  call  off  in  each  rank  by  twos. 

At  the  command,  prepare  to  mount,  Nos.  1  of  the  front  rank  lead  for- 
ward 4  paces,  (of  3'  each,)*  Nos.  2  of  the  rear  rank,  and  the  file-closers, 
fall  back  the  same  distance,  the  non-commissioned  officers  on  the  flanks 
of  the  front  rank  lead  forward  8  paces.  After  mounting,  upon  the  com- 
mand, form  ranks,  the  Nos.  2  of  each  rank  move  up  alongside  of  Nos.  1, 
the  non-commissioned*  officers  resume  their  proper  places,  and  the  rear 
rank  is  closed  up  on  the  front  rank. 

The  dismounting  is  -effected  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  men,  being  mounted,  call  off  in  each  rank  from  right  to  left,  and 
then  in  each  rank  by  threes. 

Column  may  be  formed :  by  file,  by  twos,  by  threes,  and  by  sixes. 

In  the  column  by  twos,  each  rank  consists  of  the  men  of  the  same  file, 
each  rear-rank  man  riding  alongside  of  his  front-rank  man. 

In  the  column  by  sixes,  each  rank  consists  of  the  men  of  the  same  set 
of  threes,  the  three  rear-rank  men  riding  abreast  of  their  three  front- 
rank  men. 

(Fig.  30.)  To  break  the  platoon  by  file,  from  a  halt:  at  the  preparatory 
command,  the  right  guide  places  himself  in  front  of  the  1st  file,  the 
trumpeter  in  front  of  the  right  guide;  at  the  command,  march,  the 
trumpeter,  guide,  and  first  file  move  straight  forward;  the  men  of  the 
other  files,  in  succession,  advance  one  pace,  halt,  turn  to  the  right,  (on 
the  horse's  hind-legs,)  move  to  the  right  in  the  direction  of  the  front  of 
the  platoon,  and  turn  individually  to  the  left  when  arriving  behind  the 
head  of  column. 


137 


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138 


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THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  139 

Fig.  31  shows  the  manner  of  breaking  by  twos. 

To  break  by  threes,  the  first  set  of  threes  march  straight  forward,  the 
rest  of  the  men  wheel  to  the  right  by  threes  in  each  rank,  move  forward, 
and,  upon  arriving  behind  the  head  of  column,  wheel  to  the  left  by  threes, 
in  each  rank.  Fig.  32  shows  the  formation  of  a  platoon  of  11  files,  in 
column  by  threes. 

Fig.  33.  To  break  by  sixes,  at  the  preparatory  command  the  right  guide 
passages  3  yards  to  the  right,  the  rear-rank  men  of  the  first  set  of  threes 
oblique  to  the  right  and  place  themselves  on  the  alignment  of  the  front 
rank,  between  the  right  guide  and  their  front-rank  men ;  at  the  command, 
march,  the  right  guide  and  the  first  set  of  threes  (formed  in  one  rank,  the 
rear-rank  men  on  the  right)  move  straight  forward,  the  rest  of  the  men 
wheel  to  the  right  by  threes  in  each  rank,  move  forward,  and  wheel  to  the 
left  by  sixes  when  the  croups  of  their  horses  are  on  the  prolongation  of 
the  left  flank  of  the  column. 

Fig.  33  shows  the  formation  of  a  platoon  in  column  by  sixes,  the  platoon 
consisting  of  11  files. 

On  the  march,  the  platoon  is  broken  into  column  according  to  the  same 
principles ;  except  that  to  break  by  file  or  by  twos,  in  doubling  the  gait, 
the  right  file  moves  straight  forward  at  the  new  gait,  and  the  rest  of  the 
platoons  at  once  oblique  to  the  right,  each  file  entering  the  column  in 
succession. 

All  these  movements  are  executed  by  the  left  flank,  by  inverse  means. 
When  the  platoon,  broken  into  column,  is  to  form  to  the  front,  on  the 
right  or  left,  or  to  the  right  or  left  into  line,  the  leading  subdivision 
marches  platoon  distance  before  halting. 

The  platoon  being  in  column  by  file,  right  in  front,  at  a  halt,  to  form 
column  by  twos :  at  the  command,  march)  each  front-rank  man  moves 
forward  his  horse's  length  and  halts ;  each  rear-rank  man  moves  up  on  the 
right  of  his  front-rank  man  and  halts ;  then  the  column  closes  up  on  the 
leading  subdivision. 

To  form  from  column  by  file  into  column  by  threes :  at  the  command, 
march  J  Nos.  1  of  both  ranks  move  forward  a  horse's  length  and  halt ; 
Nos.  2  and  3  of  each  rank  oblique  to  the  left,  and  form  on  the  left  of 
Nos.  1 ;  then  the  column  closes  up  on  the  leading  set  of  threes.  • 

Fig.  34.  To  form  from  column  by  file,  into  column  by  sixes :  at  the  com- 
mand, march,  Nos.  1  of  the  front  rank  move  forward  a  horse's  length  and 
halt ;  Nos.  2  and  3  of  the  same  rank  oblique  to  the  left,  and  form  on  the 
left  of  Nos.  1,  in  the  order  of  their  numbers ;  the  rear-rank  men  oblique 
to  the  right,  and  form  on  the  alignment  of  the  front  rank,  also  in  the  order 
of  their  numbers,  from  right  to  left ;  the  ranks  of  sixes,  thus  formed,  then 
close  up  on  the  head  of  the  column. 

If  the  column  is  in  march,  the  front  is  increased  according  to  the  same 


140 


THE   ARMIES   OP  EUROPE. 


principles;  i.e.  each  new  subdivision  is  formed  at  the  original  gait;  then 
those  in  rear  close  up  on  the  head  of  column  by  doubling  the  gait. 

The  front  is  decreased,  whether  the  column  is  in  march  or  at  a  halt,  in 
a  manner  similar  to  that  pursued  in  the  United  States  tactics. 

SCHOOL  OF  THE  SQUADRON. 

The  squadron  is  divided  into  two  half  squadrons  and  four  platoons. 
The  platoons  are  numbered  from  right  to  left,  and  each  platoon  preserves 
its  original  number,  whatever  position  it  may  occupy  in  line  or  in  column. 
Each  platoon  is  counted  off :  (a)  by  twos ;  (ft)  from  right  to  left ;  (c)  by 
threes ;  this  is  done  under  the  direction  of  the  commandants  of  platoons, 
before  the  squadron  informed.  If  there  are  odd  files  in  the  4th  platoon, 
they  are  posted  on  its  right. 

COMPOSITION   OP   THE    SQUADRON. 

The  minimum  strength  is  as  follows :  1  captain,  commanding ;  4  com- 
mandants of  platoons;  16  sergeants;  3  trumpeters;  96  corporals  and  pri- 
vates. As  a  general  rule,  the  average  strength  of  the  squadron  is  120 
corporals  and  privates,  or  60  files. 

POSTS   OP   THE   OPFICERS   AND   SERGEANTS. 
Fig.  35. 


2idj,t  Tthj^t  4fl^Lt 

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S^f^Jjt 


Fig.  35.  The  squadron  being  deployed,  the  officers  are  posted  as  follows  : 
the  captain  commanding,  at  platoon  distance  in  front  of  the  centre  of  the 
squadron ;  the  commandant  of  the  1st  platoon,  1  pace  in  front  of  the  2d 
file  from  the  right  of  his  platoon ;  the  commandants  of  the  2d  and  3d 
platoons,  1  pace  in  front  of  the  centres  of  their  platoons ;  the  commandant 
of  the  4th  platoon,  1  pace  in  front  of  the  2d  file  from  the  left  of  his  pla- 
toon ;  if  there  is  a  5th  subaltern,  he  is  posted,  as  a  file-closer,  3  paces  in 
rear  of  the  centre  of  the  line  of  non-commissioned  file-closers ;  if  there  is 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


141 


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142 


THE  ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


a  6th  subaltern,  lie  is  posted  1  pace  in  front  of  the  2d  file  from  the  left  of 
the  1st  platoon ;  if  there  is  a  7th  subaltern,  he  is  posted  1  pace  in  front 
of  the  2d  file  from  the  right  of  the  4th  platoon. 

Subalterns  command  platoons  according  to  their  ability,  and  not  according 
to  seniority ;  the  1st  and  4th  platoons  being  considered  the  most  important. 

If  there  are  not  enough  officers  present  to  supply  commandants  of  pla- 
toons, the  deficiency  is  made  good  by  the  most  capable  sergeants. 

If  there  is  no  officer  to  act  as  file-closer,  this  position  is  not  filled  by  a 
sergeant. 

Fig.  35  gives  the  positions  of  the  difi"erent  sergeants  in  line ;  No.  15  is 
the  standard-bearer,  in  standard-squadrons,  and  No.  16  is  his  assistant ;  in 
squadrons  without  standards,  No.  15  is  posted  in  rear  of  the  2d  file  from 
the  left  of  the  2d  platoon,  and  No.  16  in  rear  of  the  2d  file  from  the  right 
of  the  3d  platoon ;  the  non-commissioned  file-closers  are  1  pace  behind  the 
rear  rank.  In  standard-squadrons  having  but  14  sergeants.  No.  13  is  the 
standard-bearer,  No.  14  his  assistant. 

No.  6  carries  the  squadron  guidon. 

There  must  always  be  at  least  one  file-closer  for  every  platoon ;  if  there 
are  not  enough  sergeants  for  this  purpose,  corporals  are  detailed  to  supply 
the  deficiency. 

The  sergeants  may  be  posted,  by  the  commander  of  the  squadron,  with- 
out regard  to  their  relative  rank. 

Trumpeters  are  posted,  either  in  one  rank,  at  five  paces  on  the  right  of 
the  rear  rank,  or  in  rear  of  the  4th  files  from  the  right  of  the  1st,  4th,  and 
2d  platoons ;  the  latter  position  in  preference. 

In  the  engravings  accompanying  this  report,  extracted  from  the  Russian 
tactics,  two  drummers  and  two  trumpeters  are  usually  represented ;  these 
drummers  refer  only  to  the  dragoon  regiments. 

The  men  armed  with  rifled  carbines,  (four  in  each  platoon,)  who  are  to 
act  as  skirmishers,  always  form  the  flank  files  of  the  platoons ;  these  files 
should  always  be  full. 

Figs.  36  to  42  will  sufficiently  explain  the  formation  of  a  squadron  in 
column  by  twos,  threes,  sixes,  platoons,  and  half  squadrons,  as  well  as  the 
posts  of  the  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers. 

Fig.  38. 


Column  by  sixes — Right  in  front. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


143 


Fig.  39. 


■l^c. 


^s^ 


Column  by  sixes — Left  in  froaL 


I 


1 


Column  by  platoons— Right  in  front. 


144 


THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 


Fig.  41. 


I 


"^■UiUlil 


--«««illllll 


I 


,mmm 


I    ii 
.      i 

Column  by  platoons — Left  in  front. 


1 


145 


i 


i 


rt'^'''""«'i 


^ 


Column  by  half  squadrons. 


Fig.  43. 


I 


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II       I    I    I    I   II     ii 


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,    ^    ^   fS>    ^ 


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THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 
Fig.  44. 


"Tf'r^r 


— l::-.r:.-jKlo!. _l~t-.-.j5j. 

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Fig.  45. 


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THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  147 

TO   MOUNT   AND   DISMOUNT   THE   SQUADRON. 

To  mount,  the  squadron  is  formed  with  closed  ranks,  all  the  officers 
dismounted  except  the  commander  of  the  squadron.  Fig.  43  shows  the 
positions  of  all  persons,  both  in  mounting  and  dismounting;  the  princi- 
ples already  explained  in  the  school  of  the  platoon  are  observed  in  this 
case. 

OF   VOCAL   COMMANDS. 

These  are  of  two  kinds :  those  of  preparation,  and  those  of  execution. 

The  first  are  uttered  slowly,  every  syllable  being  clearly  pronounced ; 
the  latter  are  uttered  briefly  and  abruptly. 

The  commander  should  modulate  his  voice  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  men  who  are  to  execute  the  command,  so  that  every  word  may  be 
heard.  In  the  text,  the  tonic  accent  (1)  is  placed  over  the  syllables  that 
are  to  be  accented  and  uttered  slowly  j  the  hyphen  (-)  indicates  the  pass- 
age from  the  preparatory  to  the  executive  command. 

Commands  indicating  the  gaits  are  always  given  with  the  cautionary 
command,  and  before  the  word — march. 

The  commanding  officer  should  always  designate  the  gait. 

PRINCIPAL   GUIDES. 

Sergeants  Nos.  6,  9,  and  12  are  the  principal  guides  of  the  squadron ; 
all  the  sergeants  should,  however,  be  instructed  in  the  duties  of  principal 
guides,  that  they  may  be  able  to  fulfil  them  in  case  of  necessity. 

Fig.  44  shows  the  positions  of  the  principal  guides  in  the  alignment  of 
a  squadron,  to  the  right,  by  platoons. 

In  mounted  squadrons  the  men  are  arranged,  according  to  the  height 
of  men  and  horses,  from  right  to  left  in  the  right  half  squadron,  and  from 
left  to  right  in  the  left  half  squadron. 

The  front  rank  is  composed  of  the  men  who  are  the  best  looking,  best 
riders,  and  most  prompt,  with,  as  far  as  possible,  the  best  and  most 
thoroughly  trained  horses.  Prompt  and  well-instructed  men,  with  the 
best  horses,  are  placed  on  the  flanks  of  platoons  and  threes. 

SQUADRON   WITH   OPENED   RANKS. 

The  ranks  may  be  opened  either  by  causing  the  front  rank  to  move 
forward,  or  the  rear  rank  to  rein  back. 

Fig.  45  shows  the  formation  of  the  squadron  with  open  ranks ;  the 
commandants  of  platoons,  facing  the  squadron,  are  six  paces  from  the 
front  rank ;  the  ranks  six  paces  apart ;  the  file-closers  six  paces  behind 
the  rear  rank 

Columns  by  files,  twos,  threes,  and  sixes,  are  formed  and  broken  as 
prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  platoon. 

The  front  of  the  column  may  be  increased  either  in  all  the  platoons  at 


148  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

the  same  time,  or,  beginning  with  the  head  of  the  column,  by  the  diflferent  * 
platoons  in  succession.     The  front  of  the  column  is  decreased  always  by 
the  platoons  in  succession. 

When  the  squadron  is  in  line,  to  break  it,  by  the  right,  by  platoons  to 
the  front,  the  1st  platoon  marches  straight  to  the  front,  all  the  others 
wheel  to  the  right  on  a  fixed  pivot ;  the  2d  platoon  then  wheels  to  the 
left  and  follows  the  1st ;  the  3d  and  4th  move  forward  and  wheel  to  the 
left,  as  each  arrives  where  the  2d  wheeled  to  the  left. 

MARCHING   IN   LINE. 

A.  When  marching  in  line,  the  alignment  of  the  squadron  will  depend 
upon  that  of  the  officers  in  front  of  the  platoons ;  it  is  therefore  required 
that  these  officers  should  be  frequently  exercised  in  marching  in  line,  at 
the  proper  intervals,  to  the  front  and  obliquely,  at  all  gaits ;  since  absent 
officers  are  to  be  replaced  by  sergeants,  the  latter  are  also  exercised  in 
the  same  manner. 

B.  Before  marching  in  line  with  closed  ranks,  the  squadron  is  exercised 
with  the  ranks  opened  to  squadron  distance,  the  front  rank  commanded 
by  the  senior  subaltern,  the  rear  rank  by  the  second  subaltern. 

C.  The  squadron  is  exercised  at  marching  with  the  flank  files  of  the 
platoons  and  the  intermediate  sergeants,  thrown  forward  about  20  paces. 

D.  In  starting  or  changing  gait,  the  guide  moves  gently,  to  avoid  agita- 
tion in  the  ranks. 

E.  The  march  in  line  should  not  be  attempted  at  a  trot  until  well  done 
at  a  walk ;  after  being  properly  done  at  a  trot,  it  is  executed  at  a  gallop, 
the  gait  being  changed  on  the  march. 

OF   COLUMNS. 

Right  columns  are  those  right  in  front  j  left  columns  are  those  left  in 
front. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  columns  :  1,  columns  with  distance ;  2,  close 
columns ;  3,  marching  columns,  or  columns  in  route. 

In  every  kind  of  column  the  distance  is  measured  from  the  fore-feet  of 
the  horses  of  one  subdivision  to  the  fore-feet  of  the  front-rank  horses  of 
the  next  subdivision. 

In  a  right  column  the  guide  is  left,  in  a  left  column  it  is  right. 

The  object  of  a  column  with  full  distance  is  that  the  troops  composing 
it  may  form  line  in  every  direction ;  therefore  the  distance  between  the 
subdivisions  must  be  equal  to  their  respective  fronts. 

The  object  of  a  close  column  is,  by  decreasing  its  depth  to  execute 
movements  conveniently  and  rapidly.  Close  columns  are  formed  by  half 
squadrons  and  by  squadrons;  the  distance  is  15  paces;  the  formation  of 
these  columns  is  explained  in  the  school  of  the  regiment. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


149 


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150  THE  ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

Tlie  object  of  a  column  in  route  is  to  effect  a  march  conveniently. 
According  to  the  width  of  the  road,  this  column  is  formed  by  platoons, 
sixes,  threes,  twos,  or  files;  in  preference,  by  plateons,  when  the  road 
permits. 

The  direction  of  a  column  ip  march  is  changed  as  in  the  United  States 
tactics ;  but,  in  order  to  perfect  the  instruction  of  both  ranks,  the  column 
by  platoons  is  formed  in  single  ranks,  at  platoon  distance,  in  the  first 
lessons? 

To  form  from  column  by  platoons,  or  half  squadrons,  into  line  to  the 
front  or  rear,  or  to  increase  the  front  of  a  column  by  platoons,  each 
platoon  obliques,  instead  of  making  half  wheels,  e.g. : 

(Fig.  46.)  To  form  front  into  line  from  a  column  of  platoons,  right  in 
front,  the  1st  platoon  marches  forward  platoon  distance  and  halts,  the 
others  oblique  to  the  left,  by  the  individual  oblique  march,  .and  move  to 
the  front  when  opposite  their  respective  places  in  line.  . 

To  form  on  the  right  or  left  into  line,  the  leading  platoon  moves  for- 
ward platoon  distance,  after  having  finished  its  wheel. 

OF   ATTACKING. — THE   ATTACK,  OR   CHARGE,  IN   CLOSE   ORDER. 

The  general  rules  for  executing  a  charge  in  close  order  are  the  same 
'as  for  an  advance  in  line. 

The  command  of  execution  for  a  charge  is  march,  march. 

At  this  command  the  ofl&cers  and  the  front  rank  charge  sabre. 

During  a  charge  all  commands,  after  that  of  march,  march,  are  re- 
peated by  the  commandants  of  platoons. 

A  charge  should  not  extend  over  more  than  eighty  paces ;  the  nearer 
a  regiment  of  cavalry  can  approach  the  enemy  at  a  trot,  the  more  violent 
will  be  the  shock ;  but  the  farther  from  the  enemy  the  command  march, 
march,  is  given,  the  weaker  will  be  the  shock,  and  the  greater  the  dis- 
order among  the  horses.  In  order  to  save  the  horses,  they  should,  if  pos- 
sible, before  halting  them  after  a  charge,  be  brought  down  to  a  trot. 

The  charge  is  first  taught  by  platoon,  and  afterwards  by  squadron. 
To  execute  the  charge  by  platoon,  the  squadron  commander  places  him- 
self 300  paces  in  front  of  the  squadron,  and  directs  the  commandant  of 
the  first  platoon  to  execute  the  charge;  this  officer  moves  his  platoon 
fifty  paces  at  a  walk,  then  100  at  a  trot,  fifty  at  a  gallop,  charges  eighty 
paces,  and  halts  his  platoon  abreast  of  the  captain.  The  charge  by  squad- 
ron is  executed  in  a  similar  manner,  the  captain  leading  the  charge 

At  the  command  trot,  or  walk,  after  the  charge,  the  officers  and  the 
front  rank  carry  sabres. 

The  troops  are  also  taught  to  charge  directly  from  a  halt.  During  the 
charge,  at  the  command  march,  march,  the  standard-bearer  falls  back 
into  the  line  of  file-closers,  the  assistant  behind  him;  at  the  command 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


151 


♦^ 
« 


halt,  they  resume  their  places  in  line.  •  Dui'ing  the  charge,  the  rear-rank 
men  are  to  cover  their  file-leaders,  and  neither  crowd  up  on  them  nor  fall 
back. 

THE   CHARGE  IN   OPEN    ORDER. 

This  is  effected  by  one  half  squadron.     (Fig.  47.) 

In  open  order  the  half  squad- 
ron is  formed  in  two  ranks,  and 
occupies  a  front  equal  t©  that  of 
five  platoons  in  close  order.  When 
deployed  in  open  order  the  officers 
and  sergeants  are  posted  as  fol- 
lows :  the  commander  of  the 
squadron  always  follows  the 
movements  of  the  half  squadron 
detailed  for  duty  in  open  order, 
and  places  himself  where  he 
deems  necessary,  having  a  trum- 
peter with  him;  if  there  is  an 
officer  with  the  squadron  as 
file-closer,  he  accompanies  the 
squadron  commander,  to  carry  his 
orders  ]  the  commandants  of  pla- 
toons are  in  the  front  rank;  the 
sergeants  are  in  their  usual  places, 
except  that  the  file-closers  are  ten 
paces  behind  the  rear  rank.  The 
other  half  squadron  constitutes  a 
reserve,  and  holds  itself  at  150 
paces  in  rear  of  the  line,  deployed 
in  open  order;  it  never  retires 
without  special  orders.  The  stand- 
ard remains  with  the  reserve. 

For  the  charge  in  open  order 
the  signal  "  attack"  is  sounded, 
and  then  "  disperse."  If  the 
charge  is  to  be  made  from  a 
halt,  then  at  the  first  signal  the 
designated  half  squadron  moves  forward  at  a  trot,  and  at  the  second  signal 
the  commander  orders  disperse;  if  the  squadron  is  on  the  march  when 
the  first  signal  is  sounded,  the  attacking  half  squadron  continues  moving 
at  the  original  gait,  while  the  reserve  halts.  At  the  command  disperse 
the  men  charge  sabres  and  disperse  as  follows :  if  it  is  the  right  half 
squadron  which  is  to  disperse,  the  right  guide  is  the  guide  of  the  move- 


\\'.''V\\ 


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152  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

• 
ment,  and  moves  straight  forward 'at  a  hand  gallop;  the  rest  of  the 
men  gain  ground  to  the  left  and  front,  at  the  charging  gait,  until  the 
left  file  of  the  second  platoon  extends  to  platoon  distance  to  the  left  of 
the  left  flank  of  the  reserve ;  (this  is  done  to  cover  the  intervals  when 
several  squadrons  are  formed  in  one  line.)  If  it  is  the  left  half  squadron 
which  deploys,  then  the  left  guide  is  the  guide  of  the  movement,  and  the 
right  file  eitends  to  platoon  distance  beyond  the  right  file  of  the  reserve. 
When  the  outer  flank  has  extended  sufiicientlj^  the  whole  line  moves 
straight  forward  at  a  charge,  the  men  using  their  pistols  and  sabres,  not 
paying  attention  to  the  alignment,  but  taking  care  to  preserve  sufl&cient 
intervals  for  a  free  use  of  their  weapons.  At  the  signal  halt,  they  halt 
and  dress  on  the  centre,  the  rear- rank  placing  themselves  ten  paces  be- 
hind their  front-rank  men. 

The  skirmishers  may  be  assembled  either  on  the  reserve  or  on  the  guide 
of  the  line ;  in  either  case  it  is  at  full  speed ;  and  in  the  first  case  the 
men  fall  in  without  regard  to  place,  merely  endeavoring  to  get  into  the 
proper  rank  and  platoon.  The  men  are  instructed  in  the  charge  in  open 
order,  first  at  a  walk,  afterwards  at  a  trot,  gallop,  and  charge. 

ECHELONS.  ,  • 

The  squadron  is  exercised  in  advancing  by  echelons  of  half  squadrons, 
the  distance  between  the  echelons  being  at  least  equ^l  to  the  front  of  a 
half  squadron..  The  advance  is  by  alternate  half  squadrons,  or -occa- 
sionally by  both  advancing,  in  echelon,  simultaneously. 

A  retreat  is  always  conducted  by  half  squadrons,  and  at  a  walk,  or  trot. 
If  the  right  half  squadron  commences  the  movement,  it  wheels  to  the 
right  about  by  platoons,  moves  about  half  squadron  distance  to  the  rear, 
and  again  wheels  by  platoons  to  the  right  about ;  on  this,  the  left  half 
squadron  wheels  to  the  left  about  by  platoons,  moves  squadron  distance 
to  the  rear,  and  then  again  wheels  to  the  left  about  by  platoons.  The 
standard  remains  with  the  left  half  squadron. 

SKIRMISHERS. 

The  open  order  of  battle  is  a  chain  of  skirmishers,  with  a  reserve  in 
its  rear.  The  purpose  of  the  chain  of  skirmishers  is  to  watch  the  move- 
ments of  the  enemy,  to  weaken  and  harass  him  by  its  fire,  and  thus  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  success  of  the  main  body  in  close  order,  or  else 
to  cover  its  movements. 

The  reserve  is  to  support  and  reinforce  the  chain,  and  to  serve  as  a 
rallying-point  for  the  skirmishers ;  it  should  therefore  be  in  rear  of  the 
skirmishers,  and  follow  their  movements. 

Commanders  of  parties  detailed  as  skirmishers  will  employ  vocal  com- 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  15S 

mands  in  preference  to  the' trumpet* signals;  the  latter  will  be  employed 
only  when  the  skirmishers  are  already  deployed. 

To  avoid  the  possibility  of  mistakes,  commanders  ordering  their  trum- 
peters to  sound  any  signal  will  always  indicate  it  by  its  name,  and  not  by 
its  number. 

The  Russian  system  of  instruction  for  mounted  skirmishers  gives  in 
great  detail  the  movements  for  their  deployment,  advance,  and  retreat; 
change  of  direction  and  position ;  firing,  extending  and  closing  intervals, 
assembly,  relief,  &c. 

If  a  platoon  of  12  files  is  detailed  for  skirmishing  duty,  6  files  are  de- 
ployed, and  6  are  detailed  as  a  reserve.  The  commandant  of  the  platoon, 
one  of  the  guides,  a  file-cloaer,  and  a  trumpeter,  accompany  the  skir- 
mishers a  little  in  rear  of  the  line ;  the  other  guide  commands'the  reserve, 
which  he  holds  at  lOO.yards  from  the  line  of  skirmishers.* 

Fig.  48. — Skirmishers. 


^^ 


(Fig.  48.)  When  the  line  is  halted,  each  rear-rank  man  places  him- 
self so  that  his  horse's  head  shall  be  1  pace  to  the  rear  and  right  of  the 
tail  of  the  horse  of  his  front-rank  man ;  the  interval  between  the  files 
depends  upon  circumstances. 

To  fire  at  a  halt. — No.  1  of  the  front  rank,  in  each  set  of  threes, 
advances  20  paces  at  a  walk,  halts,  turns  his  horse's  left  side  obliquely 
towards  the  enemy,  fires,  and  returns  at  a  trot  to  the  place  vacated  by  his 
rear-rank  man,  who  has  in  the  mean  time  taken  the  front-rank  man's 
original  position.  As  soon  as  No.  1  has  fired,  the  front-rank  No.  2,  in 
each  set  of  threes,  advances  20  paces,  but  does  not  fire  until  No.  1  has 
retaken  his  place  in  the  line ;  when  No.  3  has  fired,  in  the  same  manner 
the  rear-rank  No.  1  fires,  &c. 

To  fire  advancing. — This  is  executed  according  to  the  same  principles; 
the  line  continuing  to  move  forward  at  its  original  gait,  while  the  men 
who  are  to  fire  advance  by  doubling  the  gait. 

To  fire  retreating. — The  whole  line  halts,  and  faces  the  enemy;  Nos.  1 
of  the  front  rank  fire,  come  to  a  right  about,  and  retire  at  a  walk,  loading 
their  pieces ;  as  they  pass  their  rear-rank  men,  the  latter  make  a  right 


>54  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

about,  and  follow  at  1  pace  to  the  right  rear  of  their  front-rank  men ; 
when  they  have  retired  30  paces,  each  makes  a  right  about,  and  halts, 
facing  the  enemy,  the  rear-rank  men  now  nearest  the  enemy.  • 

As  soon  as  Nos.  1  have  executed  this,  Nos.  2  do  the  same ;  then  Nos.  3 ; 
then  the  rear-rank  Nos.  1  fire,  and  so  the  movement  is  continued. 

Fig.  49  gives  an  example  of  the  arrangement  of  2  squadrons  detailed 
as  skirmishers  in  front  of  a  regiment  of  6  squadrons ;  in  each  of  the  2 
squadrons  a  half  squadron  is  held  in  reserve,  the  other  platoons  being 
deployed  as  already  explained ;  each  of  these  platoons  holds  one-half  of 
its  force  in  reserve. 

The  chain  of  skirmishers  should  always  be  continuous,  unless  there  is 
artillery  in  rear  of  it;  it  should  overlap  the,body  it  covers  about  20  paces 
on  each  flank,  and  have  its  own  flanks  somewhat  thrown  back. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  dismount  parties  of  cavalry  for  the  pur- 
pose of  holding  or  carrying  some  post,  Nos.  2  of  each  rank  remain 
mounted,  and  hold  the  horses  of  Nos.  1  and  3. 

Lancers  are.not  dismounted  if  it  can  be  avoided;  but  if  it  is  necfessary, 
then  only  one-half  the  men  dismount,  and  place  their  lances  in  the  left 
stirrup  boots  of  the  men  remaining  mounted,  who  pass  the  sling  over  the 
left  arm. 

.  In  actual  service,  the  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  must  watch, 
that,  when  the  signal  to  commence  firing  is  given,  only  those  men  fire 
who  see  the  enemy  within  suitable  range.  To  prevent  accidents,  the  men 
should  never  cock  their  pieces  until  their  turn  to  fire  arrives.  Officers 
and  sergeants  with  the  chain  and  reserves  carry  sa!)res.  'Whilst  dis- 
persing, the  sergeants  and  men  charge  sabres,  or  lances ;  but  at  the  com- 
mand halt^  both  ranks  rest  lances,  or  drop  sabres,  (allowing  them  to  hang 
from  the  wrist  by  the  sabre-knot,)  and  advance  carbine  or  raise  pistol. 

'-      THE   OOLUMN   OF   ATTACK. 

Before  passing  to  the  school  of  the  regiment,  it  is  necessary  to  explain 
the  column  of  attack.  It  must  first  be  stated  that  in  the  Russian  cavalry 
2  squadrons  form  a  division,  commanded  by  a  field  officer;  each  division 
in  a  cavalry  regiment  partially  corresponding  to  a  battalion  in  an  infantry 
regiment  in  a  tactical  sense ;  in  line,  the  interval  between  the  2  squadrons 
of  a  division  is  the  front  of  a  platoon.  The  column  of  attack  (so  called) 
is,  in  fact,  a  column  of  manoeuvre,  and  is  nothing  more  than  a  division 
formed  in  double  column  on  th^  centre  by  half  squadrons  at  platoon  dis- 
tance, thus :  the  4th  platoon  of  the  1st  squadron  and  the  1st  platoon  of 
the  2d  squadro;i  (having  closed  in  on  each  other)  form  the  head  of  the 
column;  the  next  subdivision  is  composed  of  the  3d  platoon  of  1st 
squadron  and  the  2d  of  the  2d  squadron,  &c. 

Fig.  50  shows  the  manner  of  forming  column  of  attack  from  a  halt. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


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156  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 


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Fig.  51  shows  the  manner  of  forming  column  of  attack  advancing. 

Fig.  52  shows  the  manner  of  forming  column  of  attack  retreating,  the 
division  having  wheeled  about,  by  platoons,  before  commencing  its  retreat. 

To  deploy  the  column,  the  platoons  of  the  1st  squadron  oblique  to  the 
right,  those  of  the  2d  squadron  to  the  left ;  in  deploying  from  a  halt,  the 
leading  platoons  gain  platoon  distance  to  the  front  and  half  platoon  dis- 
tance to  the  right  and  left,  respectively. 

SCHOOL   OF   THE   REGIMENT. 
Before  commencing  the  drill  of  the  regiment,  the  colonel  is  required 
to  exercise  the  officers  without  the  men ;  for  this  purpose  the  command- 
ants of  platoons  are  placed  in  one  rank,  at  their  proper  intervals,  (as  if 
in  front  of  their  platoons,)  the  commanders  of  squadrons  and  divisions, 
also,  in  their  proper  places ;  and  in  this  position  they  are  carried  through 
the  various  manoeuvres,  and  taught  to  preserve  their  intervals  and  align- 
ment ;  any  absent  commandants  of  platoons  are  replaced  by  sergeants. 
Regiments  of  cavalry  consist  of  6,  8,  or  10  active  squadrons. 
In  each  regiment,  the  squadrons  are  numbered  in  regular  series,  from 
right  to  left. 

In  regiments  of  8  squadrons,  the  7th  and  8th  are  called  flanker  squad- 
rons, and,  when  necessary,  act  as  skirmishers ;  in  regiments  of  10  squad- 
rons, (dragoons,)  the  9th  and  10th  squadrons  are  armed  with  lances,  are 
called  lancer  squadrons,  and  act  as  skirmishers. 

In  each  regiment,  the  1st  and  2d  squadrons  form  the  1st  division, 
the  3d  and  4th       "  "  2d         " 

the  5th  and  6th      "  "  3d         " 

the  7th  and  8th      "  "  4th       " 

the  9th  and  10th    "  "  5th       " 

It  may  be  well  here  to  repeat,  and  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  all 
the  regiments  of  light  cavalry  of  the  line,  and  4  of  the  heavy  cavalry, 
are  8-squadron  regiments,  so  that  the  formations,  &c.,  hereafter  given  for 
8-squadron  regiments  may  be  regarded  as  the  rule  in  the  Russian  service. 

THE   FORMATIONS   OF   A,  REGIMENT   IN   LINE. 

A  cavalry  regiment  may  be  deployed  for  inspection  and  review,  or  for 
combat.  In  6-squadron  regiments,  these  formations  are  the  same ;  in  the 
others  they  are  different.  The  formation  for  inspection  and  review  is 
called  the  order  of  review;  that  for  combat,  is  galled  the  order  of  battle. 

THE    ORDER    OF    REVIEW. 

This  is  the  same  for  all  regiments ;  in  it  all  the  squadrons  are  formed 
in  one  line,  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  numbers,  from  right  to  left ; 
the  interval  between  the  squadrons  is  equal  to  the  front  of  a  platoon. 

Fig.  53  shows  this  formation,  and  the  positions  of  the  different  officers. 


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THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  163 

The  colonel  is  6  times  platoon  distance  in  front  of  the  centre ;  each 
division  commander  at  double  platoon  distance  in  front  of  the  centre- of  his 
division ;   the  squadron  ofl&cers  as  prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  squadron 

If  there  is  not  an  officer,  as  file-closer,  behind  each  squadron  or  division, 
there  must,  at  least,  be  one  for  the  regiment,  who  is  posted  at  platoon  distance 
in  rear  of  the  centre  of  the  line  of  non-commissioned  file-closers;  if  there 
are  more  than  one  officer,  as  file-closers,  but  iiot  as  many  as  the  number 
of  divisions,  they  are  posted  in  preference  behind  tlie  flank  divisions. 

The  trumpeters  are  either  united,  at  half  platoon  distance  on  the  right 
of  the  1st  squadron,  or  are  with  their  respective  squadrons. 

THE    ORDER   OF   BATTLE. 

• 

The  formation  of  a  regiment  in  order  of  battle  depends  upon  the  num- 
ber of  squadrons  of  which  it  is  conjposed. 

(Fig.  53.)  For  a  regiment  of  6  squadrons,  it  is,  as  already  stated,  the 
same  as  the  order  of  review. 

(Fig.  54.)  For  a  regiment  of  8  squadrons,  it  is  as  follows :  the  first  6 
squadrons  are  deployed  as  in  the  order  of  review,  and  form  the  line  of 
battle;  the  7th  squadron  is  formed  in  column  by  platoons,  left  in  front,  at 
squadron  distance  behind  the  right  flank  of  the  line  of  battle,  its  line  of 
left  guides  being  at  platoon  distance  to  the  right  of  the  right  flank  of  the 
1st  squadron;  the  8th  squadron  is  formed  in  column  by  platoons,  right  in 
front,  in  a  similar  position  behind  the  left  flank  of  the  line  of  battle. 

(Fig.  55.)  For  regiments  of  10  squadrons,  (dragoons,)  with  all  their 
squadrons  present,  the  order  of  battle  is  as  follows:  in  two  lines ^  one 
line  of  the  first  four  squadrons,  the  other  line  of  the  next  four,  either  line 
may  be  in  front;  the  front  line  is  called  the  line  of  battle,  and  is  deployed; 
the  rear  line  is  formed  in  columns  of  attack,  these  columns  being  opposite 
the  intervals  in  the  divisions  of  the  line  of  battle. 

The  lancer  squadrons  (9th  and  10th)  are  formed  in  columns  by  platoons 
in  rear  of  the  flanks  of  the  line  of  battle,  as  described  for  the  7th  and 
8th  squadrons  of  8-squadron  regiments. 

The  line  of  battle  an^  the  second  line  are  300  yards  apart. 

The  figures  explain  sufficiently  the  positions  of  the  officers  in  the  order 
of  battle. 

Commands  are  given  and  repeated  on  the  same  principles  as  in  the 
United  States  tactics;  when  the  colonel  gives  the  command,  march,  he 
raises  his  sabre  vertically,  to  the  full  length  of  his  arm;  he  does  the  same 
thing  upon  giving  the  command,  halt. 

In  the  order  of  battle,  the  chief  trumpeter  accompanies  the  colonel; 
there  is  one  trumpeter  with  each  commander  of  division;  one  with  each 
platoon  of  the  flanker,  or  lancer,  squadrons;  the  rest  are  in  the  rank  of 
file-closers  with  their  respective  squadrons. 


164  THE    ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

In  dragoon  regiments,  the  drummers  are  united  in  rear  of  the  second 
line.  • 

STANDARDS   AND   THEIR   ESCORT. 

Every  division  has  a  standard,  which  is  posted  with  the  1st  squadron 
of  the  division,  and  generally  follows  the  movements  of  the  3d  platoon. 

The  escort  of  the  standards  is  always  composed  of  one  of  the  platoons 
of  the  1st  squadron  of  the  regiment;  to  bring  the  standards  to  the  regi- 
ment, the  chief  trumpeter  and  3  trumpeters  accompany  the  escort;  to 
carry  them  back  to  the  colonel's  quarters,  all  the  trumpeters  of  the  regi- 
ment are  detailed. 
Fig.  56.  Fig.  56  shows  the  order  of  march  of  the  standards  and  their 

I  escort. 

1^  In  bringing  the  standards  to  the  regiment,  when  the  escort 

X.  reaches  the  nearest  flank  of  the  regiment,  it  at  once  moves  to 

^  its  post  in  line,  at  a  trot,  by  the  rear  of  the  regiment. 

If^^^l^^  For  the  departure  of  the  standards,  the  chiefs  of  the  3d 
i^WfasiTOi^  platoons  of  the  standard -squadrons  conduct  them  to  the  front 
^  of  the  1st  platoon  of  the  1st  squadron  of  the  regiment,  which 

in  this  case  forms  the  escort;  having  turned  over  the  standards  to  the 
adjutant,  the  chiefs  of  the  3d  platoons  at  once  return  to  their  platoons. 

It  is  required  that  the  commandants  of  the  3d  platoons  of  standard- 
squadrons  shall  be  officers,  even  if  all  the  other  platoons  of  the  squadron 
are  commanded  by  sergeants. 

ALIGNMENTS. 

There  are  no  general  guides.  One  squadron  is  designated  as  the 
squadron  of  direction;  its  principal  guides  (see  school  of  the  squadron) 
are  posted  by  the  adjutant,  who  then  aligns  the  principal  guides  of  the 
other  squadrons,  in  succession,  on  them. 

When  the  regiment  is  deployed,  it  may  be  aligned  by  ordering  the 
commandants  of  platoons  forward  on  the  line,  instead  of  sending  out  the 
principal  guides.  The  principal  guides  or  commandants  of  platoons  move 
to  their  posts  on  the  new  line  at  a  full  gallop. 

TO  CHANGE  FROM  THE  ORDER  OF  REVIEW  TO  THE  ORDER  OF  BATTLE. 

In  an  8-squadron  regiment,  the  first  6  squadrons  stand  fast,  the  com- 
manders of  the  7th  and  8th  wheel  their  squadrons  by  platoons  to  the 
right,  and  conduct  them,  by  the  shortest  line,  to  their  new  positions. 

In  a  10-squadron  regiment  the  first  two  divisions  stand  fast;  the  3d 
and  4th  form  columns  of  attack,  and  then  move  by  the  shortest  line  to 
their  new  positions;  the  9th  and  10th  squadrons  act  as  prescribed  for  the 
7th  and  8th  of  an  8-squadron  regiment. 


165 


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166 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


In  columns  with  distance,  the  colonel  and  the  commanders  of  divisions 
and  squadrons  are  all  on  the  directing  flank,  opposite  the  centres  of  their 
respective  commands,  and  at  distances  from  the  line  of  guides  equal  lo 
their  respective  distances  in  front  of  the  line  when  it  is  deployed;  so  that 
if  the  column  wheels  into  line  they  are  all  in  their  proper  places;  the 
adjutant  habitually  follows  the  colonel. 

Among  other  formations  in  column,  the  regiment  is  sometimes  formed 
into  several  parallel  columns  of  divisions,  or  squadrons,  by  platoons. 


CLOSE   COLUMNS. 

In  these,  the  distance  between  subdivisions  is  15  paces,  measured  from 
the  fore-feet  of  the  front-rank  horses  of  one  subdivision  to  the  same  of 
the  next  subdivision. 

Fig.  57  shows  the  manner  of  forming  close  column  by  squadron,  from  a 
halt,  and  the  posts  of  the  officers.  If  there  are  in  front  of  any  of  the  pla- 
toons officers  other  than  their  commandants,  they  retain  their  usual  places. 

If  the  close  column  is  by  half  squadron,  the  commandants  of  divisions 
and  squadrons  are  posted  on  i;he  directing  flanks  of  their  leading  sub- 
divisions, and  the  commandants  of  half  squadrons  on  the  directing  flanks 
of  their  respective  commands: 

Fig.  58. 


(For  scale,  see  p.  167.) 


HEEH 


In  forming  close  column  from  a  halt,  the  movement  is  by  threes,  in 
each  rank.  In  regiments  of  10  squadrons,  to  form  close  column  from 
order  of  battle,  the  divisions  of  the  2d  line  first  deploy. 

Fig.  58  will  show  the  general  manner  in  which  a  regiment  formed  in 
columns  of  attack  changes  front  and  deploys. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


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168  THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

Fig.  59  "wdll  sufficiently  explain  tlie  general  methods  of  deploying  close 
columns. 

The  changes  of  front  are  executed  either  with  the  squadrons  deployed, 
or  formed  in  columns  of  attack. 

The  regiment  is  exercised  in  advancing  and  retreating  by  alternate 
half  squadrons,  squadrons,  or  divisions. 

The  formations  in  echelon  are  by  half  squadrons,  squadrons,  or  divisions. 

THE   CHARGE. 

The  charge  in  line,  in  close  order,  is  executed  according  to  the  princi- 
ples laid  down  in  the  school  of  the  squadron. 

In  certain  cases,  regiments  charge  in  close  column ;  this  is  executed,  in 
preference,  by  the  cuirassiers,  and  always  at  the  trot  out;  only  the  front 
rank  of  the  leading  subdivision  charge  lances,  or  sabres. 

The  charge  in  open  order  is  also  executed  according  to  the  principles 
laid  down  in  the  school  of  the  squadron;  one  half  squadron  of  every 
squadron  charges,  while  the  others  remain  in  reserve.  One  division  com- 
mander is  detailed  to  command  the  half  squadrons  which  charge,  another 
to  direct  the  reserve.  If  the  regiment  is  formed  in  columns  of  attack, 
when  the  charge  in  open  order  is  to  be  made,  the  squadrons  first  form 
columns  by  half  squadron,  of  which  the  leading -half  squadrons  charge, 
while  those  in  rear  are  held  in  reserve,  and  at  once  take  the  proper  inter- 
vals of  5  platoon  fronts. 

The  flanker  squadrons  of  8-squadron  regiments,  and  the  lancer  squad- 
rons and  second  line  of  dragoons,  follow  the  movements  of  the  line  of 
battle ;  marohing  at  the  same  gait  as  the  latter  until  it  charges,  when  they 
move  on  at  the  trot  out ;  closing  up  on  the  line  of  battle  to  the  prescribed 
distance,  when  it  halts.  If  the  colonel  considers  it  necessary  to  form  the 
flanker  or  lancer  squadrons  in  echelon,  he  orders  them  to  form  squadron, 
after  which  they  continue  the  movement  as  just  explained. 

If  the  signal  reserve  is  sounded,  these  flanker  or  lancer  squadrons, 
instead  of-  halting,  move  on  at  a  charge  in  pursuit  of  the  beaten  enemy, 
returning  to  their  posts  in  rear  of  the  flanks  when  the  recall  is  sounded. 

REVIEWS. 

Cavalry  passes  in  review:  in  column  with  distance,  by  platoons,  half 
squadrons,  or  squadrons )  in  column  with  half  distance,  by  half  squadrons, 
squadrons,  or  divisions;  in  close  column,  by  half  squadrons,  or  squadrons. 
The  adjutant  is  at  the  head  of  the  column ;  one  pace  behind  the  adjutant 
is  the  band  of  trumpeters,  in  two  ranks,  with  the  chief  trumpeter  on  the 
right  of  the  front  rank ;  the  colonel,  6  paces  in  rear  of  the  trumpeters ; 
the  commander  of  the  1st  division,  3  paces  in  rear  of  the  colonel;  the 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  169 

commander  of  the  leading  squadron,  3  paces  in  rear  of  the  division  com- 
mander ;  then  the  leading  subdivision  of  the  column. 

The  Russians  call  a  division  of  2  brigades  divisia;  a  division  of  2 
squadrons  is  divisw/i.     Confusion  is  thus  avoided. 

f    EVOLUTIONS  OF  THE  LINE. 

The  volume  on  this  subject  is  divided  into  two  parts :  1.  Evolutions 
of  the  line  proper;  2.  Orders  of  battle,  general  columns,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  evolutions  of  the  line  to  these. 

EVOLUTIONS  OF  THE  LINE  PROPER. 

This  subject  comprehends  the  movements  of  several  regimelits,  whether 
in  line  or  in  columns. 

The  first  great  requisites  for  a  successful  cavalry  general  and  instructor 
are,  perfect  coolness  and  presence  of  mind. 

The  rules  for  giving  and  repeating  commands,  as  given  in  the  school  of 
the  regiment,  apply  here,  with  a  few  additions. 

The  preparatory  commands  are  given  by  the  general  commanding,  and  are 
repeated  by  the  other  generals  and  the  colonels ;  they  are  at  once  followed 
by  the  designation  of  the  gait  and  the  command,  march.  Down  to  the  bri- 
gadier-generals, inclusive,  the  general  commands  alone  are  given;  the  colo- 
nels give  the  special  commands  prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

In  all  cases  the  generals  of  brigade  repeat  the  preparatory  commands 
of  the  gen^als  of  their  divisions. 

If  all  the  regiments  of  a  brigade  are  to  execute  the  same  movement, 
the  general  of  brigade  gives  the  preparatory  commands  for  all  of  them. 

If  difiterent  regiments  of  a  brigade  are  to  execute  different  movements, 
the  general  of  brigade  gives  the  preparatory  command  for  the  movement 
of  the  1st  regiment  only ;  the  colonels  of  the  other  regiments  giving  the 
requisite  commands. 

Whenever  the  preparatory  commands  are  to  be  repeated  by  all  the 
generals  and  colonels,  the  general  commanding  raises  his  sabre;  this 
signal  is  repeated  simultaneously  by  all  the  generals  and  colonels ;  the 
commanders  of  divisions  (2  squadrons)  and  squadrons  at  once  give  the 
command,  march. 

When  a  movement  is  to  be  executed  by  all  the  troops,  the  general  pre- 
paratory commands  are  repeated  by  all  the  subordinate  commanders;  but- 
when  only  a  portion  of  the  troops  are  to  execute  the  movement,  the  pre- 
paratory commands  will  be  repeated  only  by  the  commanders  of  that 
portion. 

Colonels  will  always  preface  the  command,  regiment,  by  the  number  of 
their  regiments  in  the  division,  or  brigade,  (if  there  is  only  a  brigadO: 
present.) 

11 


170  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

Generals  of  division  will  likewise  preface  the  command,  division,  by 
the  number  of  their  respective  divisions ;  but  generals  of  brigade  simply 
give  the  command,  brigade,  not  prefacing  any  number. 

If  the  troops  are  formed  in  one  general  column,  or  in  a  line  of  regi- 
mental columns,  the  commands  to  draw  and  return  sabres  are  given  by 
the  generals  of  division,  and  repeated  by  the  generals  of  brigade  and  the 
colonels ;  the  troops  execute  the  order  at  the  command  of  the  latter.  If 
the  regiments  are  deployed,  or  each  formed  into  several  columns  in  line, 
these  commands  are  repeated  by  all  commanders,  down  to  those  of  squad- 
rons inclusive,  and  executed  at  the  command  of  the  latter.  When  the 
number  of  troops  is  so  great  that  the  voice  of  the  general  commanding 
cannot  be  Iffeard  by  all,  he  sends  his  orders  by  aides-de-camp.  In  such 
cases  the  distant  parts  should  conform  to  the  movements  of  those  nearest 
the  general  commanding,  that  the  movements  may  be  as  simultaneous  as 
possible.  The  general  will  assure  himself  that  the  aides  fully  comprehend 
the  order,  so  as  to  prevent  errors  and  misunderstandings ;  the  aides  should 
carry  the  order  with  the  utmost  rapidity,  and  deliver  it  clearly  and  slowly, 
but  they  have  no  authority  to  interfere  with  the  execution.  If  they  see 
that  the  order  is  not  properly  carried  out,  they  should  remind  the  ofl&cer 
to  whom  it  was  delivered  and  return  to  the  general  as  soon  as  it  is  exe- 
cuted ;  they  report  the  fulfilment  of  the  order,  or  the  reason  for  its  non- 
fulfilment.  Trumpet  signals  apply  only  to  the  first  line,  and  are  repeated 
only  by  the  trumpeters  of  that  line.  All  commands  to  the  second  and 
other  lines  are  given  by  the  voice.  The  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the 
principal  guides,  as  given  in  the  school  of  the  regiment,  apply  to  the 
case  of  evolutions  of  the  line. 

POSTS    OP   GENERALS,  ETC. 

Figs.  60  to  65  give  the  positions  of  the  generals  of  division,  brigade,  &c. 
When  the  regiments  are  deployed,  either  in  the  order  of  review  or  of 
battle,  the  generals  of  division  are  at  the  distance  of  ten  platoon  fronts 
in  advance  of  the  centres  of  their  respectivfe  divisions ;  the  generals  of 
brigade  eight  platoon  fronts  in  advance  of  the  centres  of  their  brigades. 

In  general  close  column  (fig.  63)  the  general  of  division  is  on  the  di- 
recting flank  of  the  leading  subdivision  of  his  command,  at  the  distance 
of  three  platoon  fronts  from  the  guide ;  each  general  of  brigade  on  the 
line  of  his  leading  subdivision,  at  the  distance  of  two  platoon  fronts  from 
the  guide.  When  the  regiments  are  formed  in  line  of  close  columns  of 
regiments,  at  deploying  intervals,  the  posts  of  the  generals  are  as  when 
the  regiments  are  deployed.  When  the  line  of  close  column  of  regiments 
is  with  closed  intervals,  the  generals  of  division  are  at  the  distance  of  six 
platoons;  generals  of  brigade,  four;  colonels,  two  in  advance;  the  latter  are 
on  the  prolongation  of  the  lines  of  guides  of  their  regiments.    The  general 


171 


Fig.  60. — Division  dep 


+  4 


7  T 


f    r 


T     » 


61.—: 


Fig.  63". 

Division  in  general 
close  column. 


is 


'i  ^ 


Fig.6S 


Fig.  64. — Brigade  of  S-sqnadron  regiments  in  order  of  battle. 


f 


t 


Y  ■     y        iir  '£ 


Y  HD        El  Y 


^gggy      g,»    ifo    i^a    aio    apo    3fo    t^    Paces. 


172 


the  order  of  review. 


/ 


J-  J- 


J'  J"  J*  i* 


ion  in  line  of  columns,  with  full  intervals. 

I 


ine  of  column,  with  closed  intervals. 


YE3 


Fig.  65.— Brigade  of  10-squadron  regiments  in  order  of  battle. 


I  gt     J  s  ff^    V 


y  ^    ^         Y  •     *? 


tst^ 


El        Bl 


^s^j^ 


F-Lt-J 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  173 

commanding  may  move  wherever  his  presence  is  most  necessary ;  but  the 
subordinate  commanders  will  in  no  case  leave  the  places  assigned  to  them, 
but  will  correct  any  faultg,  either  by  orders  to  tjie  nearest  subordinate 
commanders,  or  by  means  of  their  aides-de-camp.  Each  general  has  a 
trumpeter  with  him ;  the  other  trumpeters  take  post  as  prescribed  in  the 
school  of  the  regiment. 

OF   DEPLOYED   LINES. 

Regiments  and  brigades  are  posted,  in  each  division,  from  right  to  left, 
according  to  seniority.  In  the  order  of  review  and  the  order  of  battle 
they  are  each  formed  as  prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  regiment.  Corps, 
divisions,  and  brigades  are  habitually  formed  in  order  of  battle,  unless 
special  orders  are  given  to  form  them  in  the  order  of  review. 

Fig.  64  shows  the  formation  of  a  brigade  of  eight-squadron  regiments 
in  the  order  of  battle. 

Fig.  65  shows  the  formation  of  a  brigade  of  ten-squadron  regiments  in 
the  order  of  battle. 

Both  in  the  order  of  battle  and  that  of  review  the  interval  between 
regiments  and  brigades  is  two  platoon  fronts ;  in  the  first  case,  for  eight 
and  ten  squadron  regiments,  this  interval  is  measured  between  the  flanker, 
or  lancer,  squadrons.  In  the  order  of  battle  of  commands  composed  of 
ten-squadron  regiments  the  front  line  may  be  composed  of  the  correspond- 
ing wings  of  all  the  regiments,  or  one  half  of  it  may  be  composed  of  the 
right  wings  of  one-half  the  regiments,  and  the  other  half  of  it  of  the 
left  wings  of  the  remaining  regiments. 

In  the  order  of  battle  of  eight  and  ten  squadron  regiments  the  flanker, 
or  lancer,  squadrons  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  first  line,  and  not 
as  constituting  a  separate  line.  When  the  general  line  is  to  be  aligned  to 
the  front,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  new  direction  does  not  cross  the  old. 

In  all  alignments  the  flanker,  or  lancer,  squadrons,  formed  in  columns  by 
platoons,  align  themselves  on  the  flank  squadrons  of  the  line  of  battle, 
and  always  have  the  guide  on  the  inner  flank. 

The  march  to  the  front,  the  oblique  march,  wheels  and  abouts  by  sub- 
divisions, and  halts,  "are  executed  by  the  commands  and  according  to  the 
principles  laid  down  in  the  school  of  the  regiment,  substituting  in  the 
preparatory  commands,  when  necessary,  the  word  division,  or  brigadcj  for 
regiment.  The  charge  is  executed  according  to  the  principles  laid  down 
in  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

The  same  holds  good  with  regard  to  the  passage  of  obstacles ;  but  if 
partial  obstacles  exist  along  the  front  of  a  whole  regiment,  each  squadron 
breaks  into  column  by  the  appropriate  subdivision,  and  forms  squadron  as 
soon  as  the  obstacle  is  passed.  If  all  the  ground  in  front  of  a  regiment 
is  impassable,  it  forms  into  close  column,  by  squadrons,  in  rear  of  one  of 
the  regiments  on  its  flanks,  and  does  not  re-enter  the  line  until  the  next 


174 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


halt,  unless  orders  to  the  contrary  are  given.     If  the  obstacle  is  in  front 
of  the  regiment  of  direction,  another  regiment  is  designated  in  its  place. 

ECHELONS.  • 

The  formation  of  and  movements  by  echelons  are  executed  as  in  the 
school  of  the  regiment,  with  the  following  modifications : 

(Fig.  66.)  In  a  line  of  considerable  extent,  one    part  may  break  by 

Fig.  66. 


Scale  of  paces,  Figs.  66—69,  82,  83. 

1^.0  ^.0    I*  <ffl  'f         I'jl'         tfO         100  ?60 iff 


I   I 
I   I 

A! 


Echelons  by  divisions,  one  regim^it  standing  fast. 

echelons  while  the  other  part  remains  in  line;  in  this  case  the  movement 
begins  at  one  of  the  flanks,  and  is  arrested  by  the  command,  halt. 

Echelons  may  be  formed  on  an  interior  part  of  the  line,  in  which  case 
that  part  is  designated  as  that  of  direction;  the  following  movements  may 
thus  be  executed  :  (1,)  one  flank  of  the  line  may  break  by  echelons  to 
the  front,  and  the  other  to  the  rear ;  (2,)  both  flanks  may  break  to  the 
front,  or  both  to  the  rear;  (3,)  the  subdivision  of  direction  may  commence 
the  movement,  by  breaking  to  the  front  or  rear. 

In  the  first  two  cases  the  subdivision  of  direction  stands  fast,  in  the  last 
case  it  commences  the  movement ;  all  these  movements  are  executed  as 
prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  regiment.  During  movements  by  eche- 
lons, the  2d  line  of  ten-squadron  regiments  conforms  to  what  will  here- 
after be  laid  down  for  the  second  line.  Line  is  formed  from  echelons 
according  to  the  principles  of  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

THE  ADVANCE  AND  RETREAT  BY  ALTERNATE  HALF  SQUADRONS, 
SQUADRONS,  AND  DIVISIONS. 

This  is  executed  as  prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  regiment,  with  the 
following  modifications  :  if  the  movement  is  ordered  to  be  commenced  by 
the  right,  and  by  divisions,  (of  two  squadrons,)  then,  in  six  and  eight 
squadron  regiments,  the  1st  and  3d  divisions  of  the  1st  regiment,  and  2d 
division  of  the  2d  regiment  of  each  brigade,  commence  the  movement; 
if  it  is  directed  to  be  commenced  by  the  left,  the  2d  division  of  the  1st 
regiment,  and  the  1st  and  3d  divisions  of  the  2d  regiment,  commence  the 


THE    RUSSIAN  ARMY.  175 

movement.  If  the  order  to  advance  by  alternate  subdivisions  is  given 
while  the  line  is  on  the  march,  the  subdivisions  which  are  to  commence 
the  movement  continue  marching  at  the  original  gait,  but  the  others  halt; 
if,  under  the  same  circumstances,  a  retreat  is  to  be  executed,  the  sub- 
divisions which  are  to  commence  the  m(j7ement  at  once  wheel  about  at  the 
original  gait,  the  others  halt. 

TO   CHANGE   FRONT. 

In  changes  of  front  the  general  rule  is :  the  regiment  of  direction 
changes  front  by  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  school  of  the  regiment ;  the 
others  form  columns  of  attack,  which  move  by  the  shortest  lines  upon  the 
positions  marked  by  their  principal  guides. 

If,  in  a  single  brigade,  the  preparatory  command  is  prefaced  by  the 
words,  "  hy  squadrons,"  each  regiment  executes  the  movement  according 
to  the  school  of  the  regiment,  neither  forming  columns  of  attack. 

If  the  flank  squadron  of  any  brigade  or  division  is  the  squadron  of 
direction,  the  contiguQus  regiment  of  the  next  brigade  or  division  may 
change  front  according  to  the  school  of  the  regiment.  In  a  line  of  great 
extent,  all  the  regiments  may  be  first  formed  into  columns  of  attack,  and 
the  change  of  front  then  executed. 

OF   THE   FORMATION   OF   COLUMNS. 

General  rules. — Columns  with  full  distance  are  formed  according  to  the 
school  of  the  regiment.  Columns  with  less  than  full  distance  are  formed 
like  close  columns.  The  principles  of  the  formation  of  close  columns  by 
squadrons  and  by  half  squadrons  being  the  same,  the  rules  for  those  by 
squadrons  are  alone  given. 

Columns  having  the  senior  regiment  in  front  are  called  right  columns^ 
those  having  the  junior  regiment  in  front  are  called  left  columns,  whether 
each  regiment  be  right  or  left  in  front;  in  all  cases  right  general  columns 
have  the  guide  left,  and  the  reverse. 

The  distance  between  divisions,  brigades,  and  regiments,  in  close  column, 
is  twice  platoon  distance,  measured  as  between  the  subdivisions  of  a  regi- 
mental close  column.  General  close  columns  may  be  formed  either  from 
a  deployed  line  or  from  a  line  of  close  regimental  columns. 

FORMATION  OF  GENERAL  CLOSE  COLUMNS  FROM  A  DEPLOYED  LINE. 

(Figs.  67  and  68.)  One  squadron  is  designated  as  that  of  direction;  the 
regiment  to  which  that  squadron  belongs  forms  close  column  on  it,  ac- 
cording to  the  school  of  the  regiment ;  the  other  regiments  each  form 
close  column  on  the  flank  squadron  nearest  the  regiment  of  direction, 
and  then  move  by  the  oblique  march  to  their  respective  positions  in  the 
general  column. 


176 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


In  all  the  movements  of  the  regimental  columns  to  form  the  general 
column,   especially  when   obliquing,    every   squadron   must  be    exactly 

Fig.  67. 


General  right  column  on  3d  squadron,  let  regiment. 
Fig.  68. 


(For  scale,  see  p.  174.) 


parallel  to  its  original  position  in  line ;  the  lines  <jP  guides  on  both  flanks 
must  be  parallel  to  each  other,  and  perpendicular  to  the  squadron  at  the 
head  of  the  column;  and,  finally,  the  several  files  must  be  parallel  to 
each  other. 


FORMATION    OP    GENERAL    CLOSE    COLUMNS    FROM    A    LINE    OF    REGI- 
MENTAL  COLUMNS. 

Regimental  columns  in  line — i.e.  columns  having  the  heads  of  all  the 
regiments  on  the  same  line — are  formed  with  full  or  closed  intervals;  this 
formation  is  called  a  line  of  columns  with  full  or  closed  intervals. 

Full  intervals  are  such  as  to  permit  all  the  regiments  to  deploy  into 
order  of  battle  on  the  same  squadron  of  every  regiment ;  closed  intervals 
are:  between  6-squadron  regiments  2  platoon  fronts;  between  8-squadron 
regiments  4  platoon  fronts;  between  10-squadron  regiments  6  platoon 
fronts. 

General  close  column  may  be  formed  from  a  line  of  columns,  either 
with  full  or  closed  intervals. 

The  first  case  has  already  been  explained,  when  giving  the  manner  of 
forming  general  column  from  a  deployed  line. 

Fig.  69  gives  an  example  of  the  latter  case ;  one  regiment  being  desig- 
nated as  that  of  direction,  those  which  are  to  be  in  front  of  it  in  the 
column  march  straight  to  the  front,  until  arriving  abreast  of  their  places 
in  column,  when  they  move  straight  to  their  places ;  those  that  are  to  be 
in  rear  of  the  directing  regiment  gain  their  positions  by  first  marching  to 
the  rear. 

If  the  order  to  form  general  column  is  given  when  the  line  is  in  march, 
the  directing  regiment  halts;  the  others  acting  as  just  described. 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


177 


Fig.  70  shows  the  manner  of  forming  the  general  column  on  one  of  the 
flanks  when  the  march  is  to  be  continued  after  the  formation. 


Fig.  69. 


Formation  of  a  right  general 
column,  on  Sd  regiment,  from 
a  line  of  columns  with  closed 
intervals. 


The  1st  regiment  marches  straight  forward;  the  2d  moves  to  the  right, 
by  threes  in  each  rank,  as  soon  as  the  last  squadron  of  the  1st  regiment 
is  abreast  of  the  3d  squadron  of  the  2d  regiment,  and  moves  to  the  left, 
by  threes,  when  its  line  of  left  guides  is  on  the  prolongation  of  that  of 
the  1st  regiment;  the  3d  and  4th  regiments  move  to  the  right,  in  turn, 
as  soon  as  the  regiments  next  on  their  right  have  gained  an  interval 
equal  to  the  depth  of  a  regimental  close  column — i.e.  in  a  6-squadron 
regiment  5  platoon  fronts ;  in  an  8-squadron  regiment  7  platoon  fronts ; 
in  a  10-squadron  regiment  9  platoon  fronts.  At  the  close  of  the  move- 
ment, the  distances  between  the  regiments  in  the  general  column  will  be 
four  platoon  fronts ;  the  colonels  of  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  regiments  will, 
therefore,  close  up  on  the  head  of  the  column,  by  doubling  the  gait. 

If  the  column  is  thus  formed  on  the  march,  the  1st  regiment  continues 
to  move  at  the  original  gait ;  the  others  halt. 

Each  brigade  may  be  formed  into  a  separate  column,  and  these  brigade 
columns,  afterwards,  in  one  general  column. 

Fig.  71  shows  the  manner  of  forming  general  close  column,  from  a  line 
of  regimental  columns,  by  a  change  of  direction  to  the  right  or  left, 
executed  by  each  regiment.  If  the  intervals  between  the  regiments  in 
line  are  less  than  those  already  laid  down,  it  will  be  necessary  to  increase 
them  for  eight  or  ten  squadron  regiments  before  executing  the   move- 


178 


THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


ment.  At  the  close  of  this  formation,  the  regiments  in  the  general 
column  will  have  less  than  their  proper  distances;  these  must  be  taken 
upon  the  first  movement  of  the  column. 

Fig.  n. 

6-squadron  regiments. 


*J — i*.;ffj?i-a" 

fV..— -.^.1..-.—    c-jsi-3,a  - 

8-squadron  regiments. 


ta-^MT— r.'f^t-rj— -c^.-Jsr-j— 


TO   FORM   LINE   OF   COLUMNS   FROM   A   DEPLOYED   LINE. 

To  effect  this,  each  regiment  forms  close  column  by  squadron. 

If  the  same  squadron  in  each  regiment  is  taken  as  that  of  direction, 
the  line  of  columns  will  be  formed  with  full  intervals. 

If  the  line  is  to  be  formed  with  closed  intervals,  the  squadrons  of 
direction  are  so  chosen,  in  the  different  regiments,  that  no  squadron  may 
be  obliged  to  pass  twice  over  the  same  ground. 

A  line  of  columns  of  attack  is  formed  as  prescribed  in  the  school  of 
the  regiment. 

OF   MOVEMENTS   IN   COLUMN. 

Movements  in  general  column. — These  are  made  in  every  direction, 
according  to  the  principles  of  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

In  changing  the  direction  of  a  close  column,  by  the  head  of  column, 
the  following  is  to  be  observed :  each  regiment  will  turn  where  those  in 
front  §f  it  did ;  the  gait  of  the  regiments  in  rear  must  be  so  regulated 
that  no  part  of  the  column  may  be  obliged  to  halt  before  the  wheel  is 
made,  and  that,  on  the  completion  of  the  wheel,  every  regiment  may  have 
its  proper  distance. 

Fig.  72  gives  an  example  of  the  method  of  changing  the  direction  of  a 
close  column  from  a  halt. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


179 


In  close  column,  distances  are  taken  in  accordance  with  tlie  principles 
of  the  school  of  the  regiment;  e.g.,  in  a  close  column,  consisting  of  a 
brigade  of  2  six-squadron  regiments,  to  take  distance,  by  head  of  column, 
on  the  2d  squadron  of  2d  regiment;  the  2d  regiment  takes  distance  on 
its  2d  squadron,  as  laid  down  in  the  school  of  the  regiment;  the  colonel 
of  the  1st  regiment  marches  it  forward,  and  when  his  6th  squadron  is  6 
times  platoon  distance  in  advance  of  the  point  where  the  1st  squadron  of 
2d  regiment  halted,  he  halts  the  6th  squadron ;  the  others  halting  in  suc- 
cession as  they  gain  their  distances. 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  73. 


Ji  m 


— >- 


tSTJKKS 


/ 


Columns  with  distance  are  closed  according  to  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

Movements  of  a  line  of  columns. — These  are  effected  according  to  the 
same  principles,  and  by  the  same  commands,  as  for  a  deployed  line. 

The  intervals  of  a  line  of  columns  are  diminished  or  extended  by 
marching  each  column  along  the  line;  th6  principal  guides  of  the  leading 
squadron  of  each  column  precede  it,  and  mark  its  new  position. 

Fig.  73  presents  an  example  of  the  manner  of  changing  the  front  of  a 
line  of  columns. with  closed  intervals. 


TO    FORM   LINE    FROM    COLUMN. 

General  rules. — To  form  line  from  a  right  general  column,  with  full 
distance,  each  subdivision  wheels  to  the  left ;  from  a  left  column,  they 
wheel  to  the  right ;  in  both  cases  the  line  is  formed  on  the  side  of  the 
guides,  and  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

To  form  line  forward  from  a  similar  column,  it  is  first  closed,  and  the 
line  then  formed  as  usual  from  closed  .columns. 

A  general  close  column  may  be  formed  either  into  line  of  columns,  or 
into  a  deployed  line. 

The  formation  into  line  of  columns  may  be  effected  either  to  the  front, 
to  the  right,  or  to  the  left.  That  to  the  front  is  effected  by  conducting 
the  heads  of  the  regiments  on  the  new  line ;  that  to  the  left,  (Fig.  76,) 


180 


THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


^  iiii 
iii: 


i 


-;:;;  i— ^:  <-.•;; -ai 


liii 


mmrti 


Fig.  77. 


SErteS 


Fig.  78. 


^:pj: 


-I <.... — pi5jsK3 

SiSEJ5S 


For  scale,  see  page  174. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


181 


from  a  right  column,  by  a  change  of  direction  to  the  left  in  each  regi- 
ment ;  that  to  the  right,  from  a  left  column,  by  a  change  of  direction  to 
the  right  in  each  regiment. 

To  form  a  general  close  column  into  a  deployed  line,  to  either  flank,  the 
column  first  changes  direction,  and  then  forms  line  to  the  front.  A  line 
of  close  columns  may  also  be  deployed  into  line  to  the  front,  or  either 
flank;  in  the  last  case,  the  preceding  paragraph  must  be  conformed  to. 

In  forming  line  of  columns  from  general  close  column,  the  regiment 
of  direction  may  either  halt  or  move  forward.  In  both  cases  the  forma- 
tion is  executed  according  to  the  rules  given,  in  the  school  of  thtf  regi- 
ment, for  deploying  a  close  column:  i.e.  all  the- movements  and  rules 
laid  down  for  the  squadrons   and   squadron  Fig.  74. 

commanders  are  here  executed  by  the  regi- 
mental columns  and  the  colonels. 

The  line  on  which  the  heads  of  columns 
form  is  marked  by  the  principal  guides  of  the 
leading  squadron  of  each  regiment. 

The  line  of  columns,  formed  from  general 
column,  should  be  with  closed  intervals. 

Fig.  74  shows  the  manner  of  forming  line 
of  columns  to  the  front,  on  the  3d  regiment, 
which  stands  fast. 

Fig.  75  shows  the  manner  of  forming  line  of  columns  to  the  front,  on 
the  3d  regiment,  which  advances. 

Fig.  76  shows  the  manner  of  forming  line  of  columns  to  the  left,  from 
general  column. 

To  form  a  deployed  line  from  general  close  column,  one  squadron  is 
designated  as  that  of  direction.  In  forming  line  on  the  leading  squadron, 
it  may  either  stand  fast  or  advance;  if  any  other  squadron  is  that  of 
direction,  it  will  always  be  thrown  forward.  The  column  may  be  de- 
ployed either  from  a  halt  or  on  the  march ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  squad- 
ron of  direction  halts  at  the  command  of  execution. 

Fig.  77  gives  an  example  of  the  manner  of  deploying  a  general  column 
of  2  regiments  on  the  6th  squadron  of  the  1st  regiment. 

Fig,  78  gives  an  example  of  the  deployment  of  the  same  column  on  the 
2d  squadron  of  the  2d  regiment. 

TO   DEPLOY   INTO   LINE   FROM   A  LINE   OP   COLUMNS. 
Fig.  79. 


Fig.  79  gives  an  example  of  the  deployment  of  a  line  of  2  regimental 


182  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

columns ;  this  will  explain  the  general  principle  of  all  such  deployments, 
in  which  the  squadrons  of  direction  always  advance  upon  the  new  line. 

A  line  of  columns  of  attack  is  deployed  as  prescribed  in  the  school  of 
the  regiment. 

OF  THE  FORMATION  IN  TWO  LINES. 

The  first  line  is  usually  deployed;  the  second  in  columns  of  attack;  the 
first  line,  however,  is  sometimes  also  in  columns  of  attack. 

The  distance  between  the  lines  is,  usually,  about  300  yards. 

The  second  line  is  formed  in  columns  of  attack,  because  these  columns 
are  deployed  more  rapidly  than  any  other ;  because  in  this  order  the 
second  line  can  advance  through  the  first  without  obstacle,  and  the  first 
can  in  like  manner  retreat  through  the  second. 

The  columns  of  attack  of  the  second  line  are'  placed  behind  the  cor- 
responding divisions  (of  2  squadrons)  of  the  first  line ;  the  centres  of  the 
columns  opposite  the  middles  of  the  intervals  in  the  divisions  of  the  first 
line. 

A  general  column  is  deployed  into  two  lines,  as  follows :  the  portions 
designated  for  the  1st  line  remain  in  the  column  until  ordered  to  deploy, 
either  from  a  halt  or  in  march,  by  the  general  commanding,  whose  order 
is  repeated  by  the  commander  of  the  1st  line ;  the  portions  designated 
for  the  2d  line  are  conducted  to  the  proper  distance  to  the  rear  by  the 
commander  of  that  line,  and,  having  gained  this  distance,  at  once  deploy, 
and  form  columns  of  attack;  if  the  deployment  is  made  on  the  march, 
the  2d  line  reduces  the  gait,  halting  if  the  original  gait  was  a  walk,  and 
then  acts  as  described  above ;  in  any  case,  when  the  2d  line  has  formed 
its  columns  of  attack,  it  preserves  its  proper  distance  from  the  1st  line  by 
doubling  or  reducing  the  gait  as  may  be  necessary. 


ASSIGNMENT   AND   POSITION   OP   COMMANDERS. 

Each  line  should  have  a  special  commander.  In  a  division  formed  in 
two  lines  by  brigade,  the  commanders  of  the  lines  are  the  generals  of  the 
brigades  of  which  they  are  respectively  formed ;  if  a  brigade  is  formed  in 
two  lines,  the  colonels  of  the  regiments  are  the  commanders  of  the  lines; 
if  each  line  is  composed  of  two  regiments  belonging  to  different  brigades, 
then  the  general  of  division  assigns  a  general  of  brigade  to  command  each 
line.  In  every  case  the  position  of  the  commander  of  each  line  is  in  con- 
formity with  what  has  heretofore  been  prescribed ;  e.g.  if  a  line  consists 
of  two  regiments,  whether  of  the  same  brigade  or  not,  the  commander  of 
that  line  posts  himself  as  prescribed  for  a  general  of  brigade. 

The  general  of  division  is  always  with  the  1st  line. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  183 


MOVEMENTS    OF   THE   LINES. 

All  movements  of  the  1st  line  are  made  by  signals,  or  by  the  order  of 
tbe  general  commanding,  repeated  by  the  commander  of  the  1st  line ;  the 
movements  of  the  2d  line  are  made  by  orders  of  the  general  commanding, 
transmitted  by  an  aide-de-camp,  and  upon  the  immediate  order  of  the 
commander  of  the  2d  line.  Trumpet  signals  refer  only  to  the  1st  line, 
and  are  not  repeated  by  the  trumpeters  of  the  2d  line.  The  2d  line  con- 
forms to  all  the  general  movements  of  the  1st,  and  preserves,  with  refer- 
ence to  it,  the  distance  at  which  it  was  originally  formed.  If  the  1st  line 
charges,  the  2d  moves  at  the  trot  out,  and  resumes  its  proper  distance 
when  the  1st  halts,  or  passes  to  a  slower  gait  from  the  charge. 

If  the  1st  line  moves  to  either  flank,  advances,  or  retreats,  the  2d  line, 
formed  in  columns  of  attack,  executes  the  corresponding  movements  by 
platoons.  If  the  1st  line  advances  or  retreats  by  alternate  subdivisions, 
the  2d  line,  in  conforming  to  the  movement,  moves  in  one  mass ;  e.g.,  if 
the  1st  line  advances  by  alternate  squadrons,  the  odd  squadrons  com- 
mencing the  movement,  the  whole  of  the  2d  line  advances  when  the  even 
squadrons  of  the  1st  line  start,  and  halts  when  these  squadrons  arrive 
abreast  of  the  halted  odd  squadrons,  and  again  advances  when  the  odd 
squadrons  start  the  second  time, — for  the  distance  between  the  lines  is 
measured  between  the  nearest  parts  of  the  two ;  if  the  1st  line  retreats  by 
alternate  squadrons,  commencing  with  the  odd  squadrons,  the  2d  line 
stands  fast  untjl  the  even  squadrons  start,  and  moves  with  them. 

If  the  1st  line  advances  or  retreats  by  echelons  of  divisions,  the 
columns  of  attack  of  the  2d  line  move  at  the  same  time  as  their  corre- 
sponding divisions  of  the  1st  line  ]  if  but  a  part  of  the  1st  line  breaks 
by  echelons,  the  other  part  remaining  in  line,  the  2d  line  conforms  to 
•the  movement. 

If  the  1st  line  breaks  by  echelons  on  both  flanks,  or  by  the  centre, 
the  2d  line  moves  in  line,  with  the  rear  echelons.  If  the  1st  line  breaks 
by  echelons  of  squadrons,  the  divisions  of  the  2d  line  conform  to  the 
movements  of  that  squadron  of  their  corresponding  division  of  the  1st 
line  which  is  nearest  them,  and  farthest  from  the  enemy. 

CHANGES   OF  FRONT. 

The  1st  line  changes  front  as  heretofore  explained. 

When  the  front  is  changed  45°,  the  division  of  direction  in  the  2d  line 
is  the  one  corresponding  to  that  of  the  1st  line.  The  directing  division 
of  the  2d  line,  and  all  the  others  in  rear  of  that  flank  of  the  1st  line 
which  forms  forward,  also  form  forward;  the  division  next  to  that  of 
direction,  on  the  side  in  rear  of  that  flank  of  the  1st  line  which  forms  to 


184 


THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


the  rear,  will  have  its  new  position  on  the  line  of  original  formation  of 
the  2d  line,  and  at  the  point  originally  occupied  by  the  next  division  on 
the  other  side  of  that  of  direction ;  all  the  remaining  divisions  form  to 
the  rear. 

Fig.  80  shows  the  manner  of  changing  front  forward  45°,  on  the  first 

Fig.  80. 


Change  of  front  45°,  on  the  1st  division  2d  regiment. 

division  of  the  second  regiment  of  the  1st  line,  and  explains  what  has 
just  been  said:  i.e.  the  first  division  of  the  second  regiment  of  the  2d 
line  is  that  of  direction:  it  and  all  the  divisions  of  the  1st  regiment 
form  forward,  the  second  division  of  the  second  regiment  occupies  the 
original  position  of  the  third  division  of  the  first  regiment,  and  the  third 
division  of  the  second  regiment  forms  to  the  rear. 

Fig.  81  shows  the  manner  of  changing  front  90°.  This  example  will 
explain  the  general  rule  for  changing  front  90°,  which  is  as  follows :  in 
the  second  line,  the  division  of  direction  is  the  one  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  1st  line :  it,  and  all  the  others  behind  that  flank  of  the  1st  line 
which  forms  forward,  form  forward ;  the  two  next  divisions  in  rear  of 
the  other  flank  of  the  1st  line  also  form  forward;  the  remaining  divisions 
of  the  2d  line  form  to  the  rear. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


185 


I 


PASSAGE   OP  THE   LINE. 

This  may  be  executed  in  three  ways ;  (a)  by  the  2d  line  advancing 
through  the  1st ;  (b)  by  the  1st  line  retreating  through  the  2d ;  (c)  by 
the  simultaneous  movement  of  both  lines  in  opposite  directions,  i.e.  the 
1st  line  retreating,  the  2d  advancing. 

When  the  general  commanding  intends  the  2d  line  to  advance  through 
the  1st,  he  sends  orders  to  the  commander  of  the  2d  line  to  advance ',  if 
he  intends  the  1st  line  to  retreat  through  the  2d,  he  informs  the  com- 
mander of  the  latter  of  his  intention,  and  orders  the  1st  line  to  retreat. 

In  the  passage  of  the  line,  both  may  be  formed  in  columns  of  attack, 
or  one  in  this  order  and  the  other  deployed. 

It  is  a  general  rule  that  any  party  of  troops  meeting,  or  passing,  another 
party,  leaves  the  latter  on  its  left;  therefore,  if  the  2d  line,  formed  in 
columns  of  attack,  is  ordered  to  pass  through  the  let  line,  formed  in  like 


-mm- 


186  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

manner,  the  columns  of  tlie  2d  line  pass  to  the  right  of  the  corresponding 

columns  of  the  1st  line,  as 
Bfisa...  Bimil  shown  in  figure  83. 

_  ^  If,  under  similar  circum- 

stances, the  1st  line  retreats 
\  through   the   2d,  the   same 

^<^  -aH  *     principle  is  conformed  to. 

^  m%  Hill  (Fig- .82.)   Ifthe2dlme, 

»  ^a3\^  Bim  formed  in  columns  of  attack, 

^  *\ ^ jjnjia _>      is  ordered  to  pass  through  the 

1st,  which  is  deployed,  then 

gj^ig  the  columns  pass  through  the 

\  intervals  in  the  corresponding 

gggg^  ' *"j'i"ai"  *      divisions  of  the  1st  line. 

\  If  both  lines,  formed  in 


f^ 


♦  columns  of  attack,  meet  on 
the  march,  those  advancing 

-:•  move  straight  forward,  while 

.§  ^  those  in  retreat   oblique   to 

^  ^  the  right,  out  of  their  way. 

Z  '  I        (Fig.  82.)     When  the  2d 

So  I  line,  in   columns  of  attack, 

I  ^  passes  though  the  1st,  which 


(^ 


BttSla"" 


is  deployed,  it  is  necessary 
to  increase  the.  intervals  in 
the  centres  of  the  divisions 
of  the  1st  line;  this  is  done 
by  the  commands  of  the  divi- 
sion and  squadron  command- 
ers, without  waiting  for  the 
orders  of  the  commander  of 
^  3.35.3 ^ pftj >       the  line;  to  effect  this,  the 


g  g  inner  flank  platoons  of  each 

squadron  wheel  about  by 
threes,  then  wheel  to  the 
right  and  left,  respectively, 
by  platoon,  then  wheel  about 
by  threes,  and  stand  fast 
until  the  2d  line  has  passed, 

on  which  the  commandants  of  platoons  at  once  wheel  into  line. 

If  the  1st  line  is  in  retreat,  deployed,  or  in  columns  of  attack,  and  the 

2d  line  is  ordered  to  deploy  before  the  1st  has  passed  it,  then,  in  the  first 

case,  (the  line  retreating  deployed,)  the  odd  squadrons  of  the  1st  line 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY.  187 

break  into  columns  by  platoons  rigbt  in  front,  tbe  even  squadrons  left 
in  front,  and  pass  through  the  intervals  on  the  right  of  their  correspond- 
ing squadrons  of  the  2d  line;  having  passed  the  line,  these  columns,  by 
platoons,  oblique  towards  each  other,  and  thus  form  columns  of  attack ; 
in  the  second  case,  i.e.  the  1st  line  retreating  in  columns  of  attack,  these 
columns  pass  through  the  intervals  in  the  divisions  of  the  second  line, 
which  are  increased  for  their  passage,  as  already  explained. 

When  the  columns  of  the  2d  line  have  passed  the  1st,  they  may  either 
be  deployed  at  once  or  remain  in  columns. 

If  the  advancing  2d  line  is  halted  at  less  than  300  yards  in  front  of 
the  1st,  the  latter  does  not  take  its  proper  distance  until' the  next  move- 
ment, unless  it  receives  special  orders  to  the  contrary. 

If  the  advancing  2d  line  is  not  halted  at  300  paces  from  the  1st,  but 
continues  to  advance,  the  latter  follows  the  movements  of  the  former  at 
the  prescribed  distance. 

When  the  2d  line  passes  the  1st,  which  is  deployed,  the  latter  at  once 
forms  into  columns  of  attack,  without  awaiting  the  orders  of  the  general 
commanding  in  chief. 

The  tactics  give,  in  detail,  the  order  of  march,  in  review,  for  a  corps 
of  cavalry,  with  its  artillery. 

ORDERS  OF  BATTLE,  AND  GENERAL  COLUMNS. 
ORDERS    OF   BATTLE^ — GENERAL   RULES. 

To  explain  the  orders  of  battle,  the  case  taken  is  that  of  a  division  of 
cavalry,  with  its  artillery. 

By  the  order  of  battle  of  a  division  of  cavalry  is  meant  such  a  distri- 
bution of  its  parts  that  the  (^vision  can  act  promptly  against  the  enemy. 

In  the  order  of  battle  the  regiments  are  placed  in  two,  three,  or  more 
lines.  The  distribution  of  the  troops  in  lines,  and  the  formation  of  each 
line,  depends  upon  the  purpose  of  each  order  of  battle. 

The  1st  line  is  usually  deployed,  and  is  called  the  line  of  battle ;  the 
troops  of  the  2d  and  3d  lines  are  formed  in  columns,  and,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  columns,  constitute  either  supports  or  reserves :  e.g.,  if 
a  line  is  of  columns  of  attack,  the  troops  thus  formed  are  supports,  but  if 
the  formation  is  in  close  columns  o^  regiments  by  squadrons  they  consti- 
tute reserves. 

The  distance  between  the  lines  is  usually  about  300  yards. 

The  second  line  is  intended  as  a  support  for  the  first,  in  case  of  neces- 
sity ;  it  should,  therefore,  be  formed  in  the  order  most  suitable  for  thig 
purpose.  In  conformity  with  this,  it  is  formed  into  columns  of  attack; 
for  these  can  be  deployed  more  rapidly  than  any  other  column,  and  allow; 
an  easy  passage  of  the  line. 

12 


188  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  purpose  of  the  third  line  is  to  support  the  other  two,  and  also  to 
operate  wherever  its  presence  may  be  necessary.  To  fulfil  this  object,  it 
is  posted  behind  the  centre  of  the  other  lines,  and  is  formed  in  close 
columns  by  squadrons.  It  is  placed  behind  the  centre,  because  that 
position  is  about  equaHy  distant  from  the  points  where  it  will  most  pro- 
bably be  required,  i.e.  -the  flanks  and  the  centre ;  it  is  formed  in  close 
columns  by  squadrons,  because  in  that  order  the  troops  are  more  concen- 
trated than  in  any  other,  and  can,  therefore,  be  conveniently  moved 
wherever  required,  and  can  also,  without  any  inconvenience,  be  divided 
and  detached,  as  circumstances  may  render  necessary. 

EXPLANATION   OF   THE   ORIJERS   OF   BATTLE. 

Divisions  may  form  in  three  orders  of  battle  and  one  order  of  reserve. 

The  first  order  of  battle. — This  is  employed  when  the  division  is 
isolated,  and  does  not  intend  engaging  in  a  serious  affair  with  the  enemy; 
therefore,  in  this  case  a  considerable  portion  of  its  force  is  in  reserve. 
The  general  formation  in  this  order  of  battle  is :  one  line  of  battle,  one 
line  of  supports,  and  one  line  of  reserves. 

Fig.  88  shows  the  peculiarity  of  the  formation  of  a  division  of  ten- 
squadron  regiments. 

►     Figs.  84  to  89  will  indicate  with  sufficient  clearness  the  formation  of 
the  different  kinds  of  divisions  of  Russian  cavalry. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  remark  that  eight  pieces  constitute  a  battery; 
that  when  half  a  battery  is  in  reserve  it  is  formed  in  double  column  on 
the  centre,  by  sections ;  a  battery  in  reserve  is  formed  in  double  column 
on  the  centre,  by  half  battery ;  when  two  batteries  are  in  reserve,  each 
is  formed  as  just  described  for  a  single  battery. 

The  skirmishers  represented  in  the  plates  rR:e  furnished  by  the  flanker, 
or  lancer,  squadrons  of  the  regiment  in  the  first  line,  except  those  of  the 
division  of  light  cavalry  of  the  guard,  which  are  furnished  by  a  regiment 
(two  squadrons)  of  Cossacks. 

The  second  order  of  battle. — This  is  employed  when  the  division  is 
supported  by  other  troops,  and  should  present  an  extended  front  to  the 
enemy. 

Divisions  composed  of  six  and  eight  squadron  regiments  are  formed 
in  two  lines:  the  first  consists  of  two  regiments  deployed;  the  second 
of  the  remaining  regiments  in  columns  of  attack;  there  is  no  line  of 
reserves. 

Fig.  90  shows  the  peculiar  formation  of  dragoon  divisions  in  this  order 
of  battle. 

Figs.  91  to  95-give  all  necessary  information  as  to  the  formation  of  the 
other  kinds  of  divisions. 

The  third  order  of  battle. — This  is  established  for  the  case  when  a 


THE    ILUS^IAN    ARMY. 


189 


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196  THE    ABMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

division  is  to  make  a  very  energetic  attack.  In  this  case  the  division  is 
formed  in  four  lines ;  in  the  first  line,  one  regiment  deployed,  with  artil- 
lery on  both  flanks;  in  each  of  the  other  lines  one  regiment  in  columns 
of  attack.  • 

Figs.  96  to  101  give  the  necessary  details. 

Fig.  97  shows  one  exception  to  the.  rule  in  the  case  of  a  division  of  but 
three  full  regiments  and  one  Cossack  regiment  of  two  squadrons. 

Fig.  100  shows  an  exception  in  the  case  of  a  division  of  ten-squadron 
regiments,  in  which  each  line  is  composed  of  parts  of  two  different 
regiments. 

The  order  of  reserve  serves  to  concentrate  the  troops.  It  presents  the 
following  advantages :  from  it  the  troops  can  pass  in  the  shortest  time  to 
any  of  the  orders  of  battle ;  they  can  be  most  rapidly  formed  into  one  or 
several  columns;  any  portion  of  the  division  can  be  detached  without 
disturbing  the  general  arrangement.  In  this  order  the  division  is 
arranged  in  two  lines  of  close  columns  by  squadrons,  the  senior  regi- 
ment of  each  brigade  on  the  right.  Figs.  102  to  107  give  the  details. 
Th«  batteries  are  formed  in  double  column  on  the  centre  by  half  bat- 
teries. If  the  general  commanding  deems  proper,  he  may  place  the 
artillery  of  each  brigade  in  the  intervals  between  the  regiments,  increas- 
ing, for  this  purpose,  the  usual  interval  of  fifty  paces  to  such  an  extent 
that  there  may  be  an  interval  of  twenty  paces  between  each  flank  of  thoi 
artillery  and  the  adjacent  regiment;  in  this  case,  when  the  division  is  at 
a  halt  the  chiefs  of  pieces  of  the  leading  half  batteries  align  themselves 
on  the  front  rank  of  the  leading  squadrons;  on  the  march  they  align 
themselves  on  the  fi\e-closers  of  the  leading  squadrons.       i 

GENERAL    COLUMNS. 

These  are  columns  in  which  all  parts  of  the  division  are  so  arranged 
that  it  can  easily  pass  to  one  of  the  orders  of  battle. 

A  division  of  cavalry  may  be  formed  in  one  or  two  general  columns. 
This  formation  is  employed  for  taking  up  a  position  preparatory  to  action, 
or  when  in  route;  therefore  such  columns  are  called,  respectively,  q/Tensire 
columns  anj^  marching  columns. 

For  movements  to  a  flank,  and  turning  movements,  the  formation  in 
two  columns  is  used;  these  are  called,  respectively,  flanh  and  turning 
columns.  General  columns  having  the  senior  regiment  in  front  are  right 
columns,  those  having  the  junior  regiment  in  front  are  left  columns, 
whether  each  regiment  be  right  or  left  in  front.  , 

In  •  the  formation  of  a  division  into  columns,  the  general  rule  is  that 
the  odd-numbered  regiments  are  left  in  front;  the  even,  right  in  front. 
The  commander  may  place  the  regiments  and  brigades  in  the  columns  as 
he  judges  best,  without  regard  to  the  general  rule. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  I97 


General  columns j  for  one  division^  with  one  hatter^. 
Fig.  108.  Fig.  109. 

J   .  i ""l 

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R»»  Sa  o     aao    ZM    iM     ifo    SO0    CM    700    ^ 
1^ !      I      '      I      I — ■ — I     Paces. 


Fig.  108.  In  one  column. 

Fig.  109.  In  two  columns. 

Fig.  110.  In  two  columns,  right  or  left  in  front. 


198  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

Figs.  108,  109,  110,  show  tlie  arrangement  of  the  regiments  of  a  divi- 
sion, in  one  or  two  columns. 

In  marching  columns,  the  regiments  move  by  platoons,  breaking  by 
sixes,  or  threes,  when  a  decrease  in  the  width  of  the  road  renders  it 
necessary. 

For  movements  in  retreat,  the  parts  of  the  division  are  arranged  in  the 
columns  as  for  an  advance,  but  in  inverse  order. 

If  a  flank  movement  is  to  be  made  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  or  at  but  a 
short  distance  from  him,  each  line  forms  a  separate  column,  marching  by 
platoons  or  threes,  so  as  to  avoid  all  shifting  of  parts,  and  to  be  able  to 
form  rapidly  into  order  of  battle ;  during  the  flank  march,,  the  artillery 
should  march  100  paces  within  the  1st  line  of  the  cavalry;  therefore,  if 
the  batteries  were  in  position  at  the  beginning  of  the  movement,  they 
limber  to  the  rear,  and  follow  the  movement  as  here  prescribed. 

Although,  in  figs.  102  to  110,  the  artillery  is  represented  as  being  in  the 
centre  of  the  brigades,  it  may  be  concentrated  at  the  centre  of  the  division. 

RULES  FOR  FORMING  IN  ORDER  OF  BATTLE. 

General  rules. — The  employment  of  the  difi'erent  orders  of  battle,  and 
their  adaptation  to  the  ground  and  circumstances,  depend  entirely  upon 
the  generals  of  division,  unless  it  is  specified  in  the  instructions  for  the 
corps  exactly  how  each  division  is  to  form. 

In  all  cases  the  generals  of  division  are  allowed  to  make  the  partial 
changes  rendered  necessary  by  the  ground;  besides  which,  a  principal 
object  is  the  choice  of  the  most  advantageous  position  for  the  artillery, 
as  its  success  depends  upon  this  choice.  It  is  a  general  rule  for  the 
orders  of  battle,  thftt  the  junior  brigades  and  regiments  of  cavalry,  and 
divisions  and  batteries  of  artillery,  should  be  in  front;  an  exception  to 
this  rule  is  made  in  the  case  of  batteries  of  position,  as  they  are  always 
placed  in  the  first  line,  the  light  batteries  being  in  reserve.  When  the 
artillery  is  posted  on  the  flanks  of  the  line,  the  heavy  batteries  are  on 
the  right  flank,  the  light  on  the  left.  As  circumstances  may  render  it 
necessary  to  employ  one  patt  of  a  division  instead  of  another,  changes 
may  be  made  in  the  foregoing  rules ;  but  it  is  required  that  the  regiments 
composing  a  brigade  be  kept  together,  unless  it  is  absolutely  impossible 
to  avoid  separating  them.  Thus,  in  the  1st  order  of  battle,  if  the  2d 
regiment  is  in  the  1st  line,  th^  1st  regiment  should  be  in  the  2d  line, 
and  the  3d  and  4th  in  reserve. 

In  the  2d  order  of  battle,  it  may  be  permitted  to  compose  the  right 
wings  of  both  lines  of  one  brigade,  and  the  left  wings  of  the  other 
brigade. 

A  division  forms  into  order  of  battle  at  the  command  of  its  chief,  who 
designates  as  the  directing  subdivision  either  one  of  the  squadrons  of  the 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  199 

1st  line,  or  the  artillery,  according  to  the  ground  and  circumstances. 
The  subdivision  of  direction  is  taken,  in  preference,  nearest  the  new 
position  of  the  troops. 

In  forming  into  order  of  battle  from  column,  or  in  passing  from  one 
order  of  battle  to  another,  the  shortest  road  should  always  be  taken; 
never  using,  however,  the  individual  oblique  march,  which  should  never 
be  employed  for  more  than  one  or  two  squadrons;  the  artillery  may 
oblique.  The  preparatory  formations,  and  the  movements  themselves, 
are  made  by  brigade,  or  by  regiment,  according  to  circumstances. 

In  all  the  general  formations  there  should  be  an  interval  of  20  paces 
between  the  extreme  pieces  of  artillery  and  the  flanks  of  the  nearest 
squadrons ;  the  interval  between  the  pieces  themselves  is :  in  light  bat- 
teries, 20  paces ;  in  heavy  batteries,  25  paces.  If  there  is  no  artillery 
on  the  flanks  of  the  1st  line,  the  flanker,  or  lancer,  squadrons  of  this  line 
are  not  aligned  upon  the  rest  of  the  line,  but  are  in  rear  of  its  flanks,  as 
prescribed  in  the  school  of  the  regiment. 

Batteries,  in  front  of  the  1st  line  of  cavalry,  are  always  aligned  upon 
the  principal  reserves  of  -the  skirmishers ;  if  there  are  no  skirmishers 
thrown  forward,  or  if  they  are  recalled,  and  the  cavalry  does  not  close 
up  on  the  batteries,  the  latter  fall  back  somewhat,  and  take  post  at  from 
100  to'  120  paces  in  front  of  the  1st  line. 

The  distance  between  unlimbered  batteries  and  the  1st  line  is  always 
measured  from  the  line  of  pieces  to  the  front  rank  of  the  1st  line. 

Artillery  in  reserve  is  always  placed  in  rear  of  the  cavalry  reserve. 

The  tactics  then  proceed  to  describe  the  different  meth(tds  "of  passing 
to  the  orders  of  battle  from  column ;'  of  passing  from  one  order  of  battle 
to  another ;  of  forming  general  column  from  the  orders  of  battle.  It 
then  gives  the  application  of  the  principles  of  the  evolutions  of  the  line 
to  the  orders  of  battle,  under  the  following  heads :  advance  in  order  of 
battle;  retreat  in  order  of  battle;  changes  of  front;  passage  of  the  line; 
the  duties  of  skirmishers;  of  giving  the  commands.  In  all  these  cases 
the  movements  of  the  batteries  are  fully  described.  There  is,  in  addi- 
tion, a  supplement,  giving  the  position  of  the  artillery  in  the  diff'erent 
formations  of  a  corps  of  cavalry. 


200  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  m.        . 

EQUIPMENTS,  ARMS,  STABLES,  HORSES,  ETC.,  OF  RUSSIAN  CAVALRY. 

HORSE  EQUIPMENTS. 

All  the  regular  cavalry  use  the  Hungarian  saddle ;  this  will  be  fully 
described  when  treating  of  the  Austrian  cavalry,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
mention  here  only  that  the  tree  is  of  wood,  not  covered,  the  seat  formed 
by  a  leather  strap  about  4  inches  wide,  nailed  to  the  forks,  and  secured 
to  the  side-boards  by  leather  thongs. 

Light  steel  stirrups  are  used,  the  leathers  passing  through  mortises  in 
the  side-boards. 

The  cuirassiers  use  a  swivel-stirrup,  as  shown  in  thft 
annexed  sketch ;  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  good  one.  Crup- 
per and  breast-straps  of  black  leather.  Grirth  of 
leather,  and  fastened  by  three  small  buckles :  it 
passes  over  the  tree  and  is  secured  to  the  side-boards 
by  leather  thongs.  Two  leather  pouches  are  attached 
to  the  tree.  Saddle-blanket  of  stout  felt  cloth ;  four 
thic*knesses  are  generally  used,  with  a  layer  of  thin 
black  leather  on  top,  the  whole  secured  in  form  by 
leather  thongs  passed  through  and  through;  if  the 
horse  falls  off  in  condition,  additional  thicknesses  of  felt  are  used,  and 
vice  versa.  The  shoe-pouches  are  pockets  sewed  on  to  the  leather  cover 
of  the  saddle-blanket. 

This  felt  saddle-blanket  is  regarded  by  the  Russian  officers  as  the  best 
possible  arrangement. 

A  small  blanket  is  placed,  folded,  on  the  tree,  under  the  schabraque. 
The  schabraque  is  of  thick  woollen  cloth,  lined  with  coarse  linen.  Sur- 
cingle of  leather,  and  fastens  by  means  of  ring  and  thong,  in 'the  fashion 
of  a  Mexican  girth.  Valise  of  cloth,  not  materially  different  from  our 
own.     Forage-bag  of  coarse  white  linen,  open  in  the  middle. 

Bridle  and  hits. — By  all  the  regular  cavalry  a  curb  and  snaffle  are 
used,  both  of  steel.  There  are  three  marked  peculiarities  in  the  curb- 
bit  :  it  hooks  to  a  ring  at  the  end  of  the  cheek-strap,  as  shown  in  the 
following  sketch;  the  rings  are  attached  to  the  branches  by  means  of 
swivels;  the  branches  are  reversed,  that  is,  their  convexity  is  turned 
towards  the  front. 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


201 


There  are  three  patterns  of 


"With  regard  to  the  manner  of  fast- 
ening the  bit  to  the  head-stall,  it  will 
be  perceived  from  the  sketch  that  the 
little  ring  which  is  passed  through  the 
end  of  the  hook  of  the  branch,  and 
rests  against  the  flat  side  of  the  latter, 
eflPectiially  prevents  the  bit  becoming 
unhooked,  unless  the  ring  is  raised  by 
the  finger. 

The  snaffle-bit,  a  plain  one  without 
horns,  is  fastened  to  the  head-stall  by  a 
chain  and  toggle,  like  the  centring-bits 
in  the  United  States  service.  This  ar- 
rangement of  the  curb  and  snaffle  per- 
mits the  men  to  feed  their  horses  during 
short  halts  without  inconvenience;  the 
Russian  cavalry  officers  represent  it  as 
being  every  thing  that  can  be  desired. 
The  curb-chain  is  of  steel,  and  very  heavy, 
the  curb  used,  of  different  degrees  of  severity. 

The  head-stall  and  reins  are  of  black  leather ;  no  martingale.  Crown- 
piece  single,  and  has  a  spare  curb-chain  on  top  of ,  it.  Cheek-pieces 
buckle  to  the  crown-piece,  on  each  side,  by  one  buckle.  Each  cheek- 
piece  is  a  single  strap,  split  at  bottom  to  receive  the  rings  by  means  of 
which  the  bits  are  attached. 

The  nose-band  passes  through  loops  on  the  cheek-pieces. 

Two  plaited  cords  of  black  leather  run  diagonally  across  the  horge's 
face,  from  the  brow-band  to  the  nose-band ;  there  is  a  leather  rosette  at 
their  intereection. 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  about  the  halter ;  by  attaching  the  snaffle-bit 
and  reins  it  becomes  a  watering-bridle ;  halter-rope  9  feet  long  and  half 
an  inch  in  diameter. 

Forage-cord,  for  use  when  sent  foraging,  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Curry-comb  and  brushes  large  and  coarse;  brushes  have  the  back  and 
edges  covered  with  black  leather.     Mane-combs  of  metal  and  of  horn. 

Spurs  of  steel,  and  permanently  screwed  to  the  heel  of  the  boot. 

Lancers  have  a  lance-boot  attached  to  each  stirrup. 

The  Cossack  saddle  has  a  thick  padding  under  the  side-boards  and  on 
the  seat;  it  places  the  man  very  high  on  his  horse,  so  that  his  feet  are 
always  above  the  bottom  of  the  belly. 

Their  bridle  has  but  the  simple  snaffle-bit, — no  curb  nor  martin^Ie. 
•  The  Cossacks  of  the  guard  have  spurs ;  the  others  have  whips,  slung" 
to  the  wrist,  instead  of  spurs. 


202  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  Mussulman  cavalry  make  use  of  the  well-known  Oriental  horse 
equipment. 

SADDLING   AND   PACKING. 

The  tree  being  girthed  tight,  the  pouches  are  filled ;  in  these  are  placed 
the  hatchet,  curry-comb,  brush,  mane-comb,  and  other  cleaning-utensils, 
with  various  small  articles.  The  overcoat  is  then  rolled  into  a  long,  thin 
roll,  and  strapped  to  the  tree  over  the  pouches;  the  roll  falls  down  on 
each  side,  and  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  be  just  covered  by  the  schabraque. 
If  the  uniform  coat  is  to  be  carried  on  th6  saddle,  it  is  placed  as  described 
for  the  overcoat. 

The  small  blanket  is  then  folded  and  placed  on  the  tree. 

The  schabraque  is  put  on  and  secured. 

The  valise,  containing  shaving-utensils,  soap,  and  under-clothes,  is  now 
strapped  tightly  to  the  cantle,  over  the  schabraque. 

The  forage-bag,  containing  habitually  three  days'  rations,  is  strapped 
to  the  cantle,  over  the  valise,  and  lies  on  the  schabraque,  falling  down  on 
each  side  between  the  valise  and  saddle..  The  stable-frock  is  carried 
either  with  the  forage-bag  or  overcoat. 

The  hay,  made  up  in  elliptical  rings  by  hay  ropeg,  is  strapped  to  the 
cantle,  and  lies  on  the  schabraque  behind  the  man's  leg. 

The  forage-cord  and  halter  are  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  side-boards, 
under  the  schabraque. 

Spare  boots  are  carried  on  top  of  the  valise,  under  the  flap,  heels  out- 
ward. The  camp-kettle  fits  on  the  end  of  the  valise,  and  is  secured  there 
by  straps.  One  man  of  every  three  carries  a  copper  camp-kettle  as 
above ;  every  man  a  small  hatchet ;  one  man  in  every  platoon  carries  a 
spade,  slung  to  the  pommel,  the  blade  in  a  leather  case. 

ARMS   AND   ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Cuirassiers. — Steel  helmet,  breast  and  back  pieces ;  these  are  in  some 
regiments  of  bright  steel,  in  others  gilt,  in  others  painted  black. 

Sabre,  (pallasch,)  a  straight,  flat,  double-edged  blade,  39  inches  long; 
it  is  the  sabre  described  in  Thiroux,  pp.  146-148,  as  the  model  of 
"  L'an  XI  et  XII ; "  steel  scabbard ;  guard  of  brass,  and  of  the  basket  form. 

Sabre-knot,  a  flat  strap  of  brown  leather. 

Sabre-belt,  of  white  leather  waist-belt,  with  slings — plate  hooks,  like 
those  of  United  States  officers — and  is  worn  under  the  cuirass. 

Each  man  has  one  pistol,  with  percussion  lock ;  a  cord  is  attached  to  a 
ring  in  the  butt,  and  passes  around  the  neck ;  the  pistol  is  carried  in  a 
holster  on  the  waist-belt.      This  rule  is  general  for  all  the  cavalry. 

In  each  platoon  are  four  men  who  act,  when  necessary,  as  skirmishers ; 
'they  are  armed  with  rifled  carbines,  the  barrels  of  which  are  about 
fifteen  inches  long;  the  carbine-sling  is  like  that  in  use  in  the  United 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


203 


States  service,  and  is  worn  very  short ;  the  rammer  is  attached  to  the 
sling. 

A  cartridge-box,  "holding  twenty  rounds,  is  slung  over  the  left  shoulder; 
the  box  is  attached  to  the  belt  by  swivels ;  cap-pouch  on  cartridge-box 
belt  on  the  breast.  The  front-rank  men  are  armed  with  lances  10  J  feet 
long;  pennons  on  the  lances. 

Lancers. — Lance  10^  feet  long ;  pennons  of  same  color  as  facings  of  the 
uniform;  sling  of  leather;  point  of  lance  seven  inches  long;  a  lance-boot 
attached  to  each  stirrup. 

The  sabre  is  three  feet  long  in  the  blade;  a  little 
less  curved,  and  rather  broader  and  thinner,  than 
the  United  States  light-artillery  sabre ;  scabbard 
of  steel ;  guard  with  but  one  branch,  and  of  steel. 

Sabre-knot  as  for  cuirassiers.  Sabre-belt  of 
brown  leather,  and  worn  under  the  coat.  Each 
man  has  one  pistol,  as  for  cuirassiers.  Four  men 
in  each  platoon  carry  rifled  carbines,  with  a  longer 
barrel  than  that  of  the  cuirassiers ;  these  men 
have  no  lances. 

Cartridge-box  as  for  cuirassiers. 

Hussars. — Sabre,  sabre-belt,  pistol,  and  car- 
tridge-box, as  for  lancers.  Four  men  in  each 
platoon  carry  a  rifled  carj&ine,  the  rest  a  smooth- 
bore carbine;  the  carbine  is  always  carried  on 
the  sling,  there  being  no  carbine-boot.  Hussars 
have  a  sabretasch. 

Dragoons. — Each  man  of  the  first  eight 
squadrons  armed  with  sabre  and  musket;  the 
9th  and  10th  squadrons  armed  as  lancers. 

In  the  first  eight  squadrons  the  arms,  &c.,  are 
as  follows : 

Sabre  blade  and  hilt  as  for  hussars.    . 

The  annexed  sketch  shows  the  peculiar  ar- 
rangement of  the  scabbard  and  belt ;  the  scab- 
bard being  of  leather,  tipped  with  brass,  the 
rings  on  the  convex  edge;  bayonet-scabbard 
attached  to  flat  side  of  the  sabre-scabbard,  by 
brass  bands ;  the  belt,  a  Circassian  shoulder-belt, 
without  waistnbelt,  and  of  such  a  length  that 
when  the  sabre  is  drawn  the  top  of  the  scabbard 

is  just  under  the  left  elbow;  when  the  sabre  is  in  the  scabbard  the  hilt  is 
between  the  elbow  and  the  body. 

Smooth-bore  musket,  with  the  ordinary  bayonet ;  the  piece  about  four 

13 


204  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

inches  shorter  than  the  United  States  musket,  and  somewhat  lighter ;  it 
has  a  common  musket-sling.  It  is  usually  carried  in  a  water-proof  gun- 
case,  with  a  separate  sling,  over  the  right  shoulder,  muzzle  up,  barrel 
against  the  back ;  this  case  opens  by  a  slit  under  the  stock,  which  is  closed 
by  straps  and  buckles ;  the  butt  end  is  sewed  up.  Cartridge-box  carried 
as  for  hussars,  but  contains  40  rounds. 

The  sergeants  alone  carry  pistols. 

Cossacks  of  the  guard. — Sabre  and  scabbard  like  those  of  the  dragoons, 
except  that  there  is  no  guard,  and  no  bayonet-scabbard.  Sabre-belt  like 
that  of  hussars.  Musket  like  that  of  dragoons,  but  no  bayonet.  Car- 
tridge-box like  that  of  dragoons.  Lance  10 J  feet  long,  without  pennon; 
instead  of  having  a  lance-bucket  attached  to  the  stirrup,  a  leather  strap  is 
fastened  to  the  butt  of  the  lance,  and  the  foot  run  through  the  loop  before 
placing  it  in  the  stirrup.     Each  man  also  carries  a  pistol  on  his  waist-belt. 

Cossacks  of  the  line  of  the  Caucasus. — Sabre  and  scabbard  as  for  the 
Cossacks  of  the  guard;  sabre-belt  like  that  of  the  dragoons.  A  long 
musket  slung  over  the  shoulder;  cartridge-box  as  for  Cossacks  of  the 
guard;  pipes  for  ten  or  twelve  cartridges  sewed  on  the  breast  of  the  coat. 
Two  or  more  pistols,  on  waist-belt,  and  in  holsters.  A  long,  broad  poniard. 
No  lances. 

Tscherkesses. — Armed  as  Cossacks  of  the  line  of  the  Caucasus.  The 
officers  carry  bows  and  arrows,  to  enable  them  to  cut  oflf  sentinels  without 
creating  an  alarm. 

Other  Cossacks. — Usually  armed  with  lance,  sabre,  and  pistol.  About 
ten  men  in  every  squadron  carry  muskets ;  in  some  cases  all  the  men  have 
muskets. 

Mussulmen  of  the  guard. — Armed  in  the  Oriental  style. 

All  the  irregular  cavalry  carry  their  arms  very  close  to  the  body,  and 
so  arranged  as  to  make  the  least  possible  noise. 

Mounted  gendarmes. — Sabre  and  belt  like  those  of  hussars.  Dragoon 
musket ;  bayonet-scabbard  on  the  waist-belt ;  cartridge-box  on  a  shoulder- 
belt.     Pistol  carried  either  on  the  saddle  or  the  waist-belt. 

Officers  wear  a  sabre  similar  to  that  of  their  men. 

HORSES,  AND  THE  MANNER  OF  PURCHASING  THEM. 

In  each  regiment  of  cavalry,  and  battery  of  artillery,  the  horses  are  all 
of  the  same  color. 

The  Russian  cavalry  is,  probably,  the  best  mounted  in  Europe, — certainly 
the  best  on  the  continent.  The  English  heavy-cavalry  horses  may  be 
somewhat  better,  but  they  have  nothing  for  light  cavalry  to  compare  with 
the  mass  of  the  Russian  animals  for  that  purpose.  The  heavy-cavalry 
horses  are  mostly  purchased  in  the  provinces  of  Tamboff  and  Woron^ge, 
at  %n  average  price  of  $90  each. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  205 

The  light-cavalry  horses  are  obtained  from  the  Ukraine  and  the  steppes, 
at  an  average  price  of  S45. 

The  artillery  horses  are  bought  in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  at  about  tbe 
same  rate  as  those  for  the  light  cavalry. 

•  There  are  no  haras  (breeding-studs)  for  the  general  service  of  the 
army.  There  is  a  commission  charged  with  the  general  direction  of  the 
purchase,  inspection,  and  distribution  of  remount  horses. 

They,  if  necessary,  establish  sub-commissions,  in  convenient  localities. 
The  horses  are  purchased  by  cavalry  officeis  detailed  for  the  purpose,  and 
are  then,  if  practicable,-  inspected  by  the  commission,  or  one  of  the  sub- 
commissions.  Having  passed  the  inspection,  they  are  distributed  among 
the  regiments,  at  the  rate,  in  time  of  peace,  of  about  150  per  regiment 
each  year.  The  colonel  of  the  regiment  then  distributes  them  among  the 
squadrons,  where  they  are  broken  in  and  drilled  by  the  old  soldiers,  under 
the  direction  of  the  captain  commanding.  The  Russians  have  nothing 
corresponding  to  the  "captain  instructor"  of  the  French  service. 

Horses  are  purchased  at  the  age  of  from  three  to  five  years  ]  those  pur- 
chased at  three  years  old  are  not  used  for  a  year  or  more. 

About  eight  years'  service  is  expected  of  a  horse. 

Remount  horses  enter  the  squadron  at  from  four  months  to  one  year 
from  the  commencement  of  their  drilling ;  depending  upon  the  age  of  the 
animal,  his  disposition,  &c. 

Mares  are  preferred,  as  a  general  rule,  but  geldings  and  stallions  are 
also  used;  and  it  is  stated  that  no  particular  inconvenience  is  found  to 
result  from  the  employment  of  stallions. 

The  horses  being  once  assigned  always  remain  with  the  same  men. 
Officers  purchase  their  own  horses,  and  are  allowed  forage,  or  a  commu- 
tation therefor. 

RIDING-HOUSES. 

These  are  numerous,  large,  and  well  constructed. 

The  windows  are  usually  arranged  as  in  the  French;  Russian  stoves 
are  freely  used  fo*  warming  them. 

The  floor  is  of  earth  and  sand.  There  is  a  wooden  wainscot-lining, 
about  six  feet  high,  and  having  an  inclination  of  about  J;  the  comers  not 
rounded  oflF. 

The  riding-house  of  the  Chevalier  Guard,  in  St.  Petersburg,  is  300' 
long,  95'  wide,  and  25'  ceiling.  One  near  the  Paul  Palace  is  595'  long, 
126'  wide,  and  25'  ceiling.  The  great  riding-house  at  Moscow  is  much 
larger.  The  two  latter  are  used  for  drills  and  inspections  during  the 
winter.     There  are  no  pillars  in  any  of  these. 

STABLES,  ETC. 
There  is  nothing  remarkable  in  the  Russian  stables.     The  floors  arc 


206  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

generally  of  plank,  a  little  straw  being  kept  under  the  horses*  fore-feet 
during  the  day ;  in  some  stables  the  floor  is  of  clay. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  simple,  swinging  bar  is  used .  to  separate  the 
stalls;  sometimes  there  is  no  division  whatever;  for' wicked  stallions  the 
stalls  are  boarded  up. 

In  many  cases  they  use  no  hay-rack, — merely  a  long  wooden  trough, 
one  end  of  which  is  divided  off  for  the  oats. 

In  some  cases  they  use  wooden  or  iron  racks  and  mangers. 

In  some  stables  a  bin  is  arranged  for  the  litter,  under  the  manger,;  in 
others  it  is  kept  in  the  stable-yard,  under  cover. 

The  saddles,  bridles,  and  other  equipments  are  usually  kept  in  the 
stables ;  the  bridles  being  hung  on  pins  attached  to  the  stall-posts ;  the 
saddles,  blanket,  &c.,  on  a  shelf  extending  between  the  heel-posts. 

Some  of  their  stalls  are  six  feet  wide ;  as  a  general  rule  they  are  quite 
large.     The  stables  are  well  ventilated,  and  kept  in  good  order. 

In  some  stables  the  quarters  for  the  men  are  in  the  2d  story,  over  the 
stables. 

The  horse-hospitals  are  usually  in  separate  buildings,  with  separate  box 
stalls,  (about  9'  X  7',)  boilers  for  making  mashes,  &c. 

The  horses  are  cleaned  twice  a  day,  watered  twice  or  thrice,  and  fed 
three  times. 

The  daily  ration  fpr  a  light-cavalry  horse  is  9  pounds  of  hay,  11  quarts 
(13f  pounds)  of  oats,  3  pounds  of  straw.  The  heavy-cavalry  horses 
receive  2  quarts  of  oats  more  than  the  light-cavalry. 

The  hay  is  generally  chopped  before  being  fed  to  the  horses. 

The  ration  is  increased  with  the  difl&culty  of  the  service ;  the  above 
being  a  minimum  for  easy  garrison  service. 

The  horses  are  shod  in  each  squadron  by  its  shoeing-smith. 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  in  the  shoes,  which  are  light,  but  strong, 
and  with  small  heels. 

FIELD  SERVICE. 

In  the  field  each  horse  carries,  habitually,  3  days'  rations  of  oats  and 
hay.  The  animals  are  sometimes  tied  by  the  halter  to  a  picket-rope,  or 
a  picket-stake,  and  sometimes  fastened  by  the  right  fore-foot  to  a  picket- 
rope  on  the  ground. 

When  picket-pins  are  used,  they  are  cut  by  the  men  on  the  spot,  or 
carried  along  if  it  is  expected  to  encamp  in  a  place  destitute  of  timber. 
The  Cossacks  hobble  their  horses. 

The  Russian  cavalry  do  not  spare  their  horses  at  drill,  or  on  the  march, 
but  bestow  all  possible  pains  upon  them  in  the  stable,  or  in  camp.  In 
bivouac,  or  in  camp,  they  are  clothed  with  the  saddle-blanket  if  the 
weather  is  bad  and  cold. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  207 

The  habitual  gait  on  the  march  is  the  walk,  of  about  3  J  miles  per  hour; 
sometimes  the  trot  is  used ;  every  hour  or  so  a  halt  of  a  few  minutes  is 
made,  after  which  the  men  lead  the  horses  for  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile.  An  ordinary  march  is  from  16  to  26  miles  a  day,  depending  on 
the  nature  of  the  country. 

The  Cossacks  regard  a  march  of  45  miles  as  nothing  extraordinary. 

After  drill  the  horses  are  walked  until  they  are  cool. 

They  are  never  unsaddled  until  quite  cool. 

At  squad  drills,  in  warm  weather,  some  men  are  present  with  buckets 
of  water  and  sponges  to  wash  out  the  horses'  mouths  occasionally. 

In  the  translation  of  the  regulations  for  field  service  in  time  of  peace 
and  in  time  of  war  will  be  found  much  information  in  regard  to.  these 
subjects.     In  the  field,  the  cavalry  carry  1  dais's  rations  in  a  haversack. 

REMARKS  UPON  COSSACKS,  DRAGOONS,  LANCERS,  ETC. 

There  are  two  peculiarities  which  cannot  "fail  to  arrest  the  attention 
and  command  the  reflection  of  the  observer  of  the  Russian  cavalry;  these 
are  :  the  general  division  of  the  cavalry  into  regulars  and  irregulars ;  and 
the  corps  of  dragoons. 

The  irregulars  may  be  comprehended  in  the  general  name  of  Cossacks. 
Yet  their  peculiarities  of  armament,  costume,  and  action  are  as  varied  as 
their  origin ;  while  the  sources  of  the  latter  are  as  multifarious  as  the 
tribes  which  compose  the  mass  of  Russian  nationality,  and  the  circum- 
stances which,  through  centuries  of  warfare,  have  finally  united  into  one 
compact  whole  a  multitude  of  conflicting  and  heterogeneous  elements.  But, 
with  all  this  diversity,  there  are  important  and  peculiar  characteristics  which 
pervade  the  mass,  and  are  common  to  every  individual,  with  as  much  uni- 
formity and  Certainty  as  that  with  which  the  firm  government  of  the  Czar 
is  now  extended  over  them.  These  peculiarities  are :  intelligence,  quickness 
of  vision, hearing,  and  all  the  senses;  individuality;  trustworthiness  on  duty; 
the  power  of  enduring  fatigue,  privation,  and  the  extremes  of  climate ;  great 
address  in  the  use  of  weapons;  strong  feeling  for  their  common  country; 
caution,  united  with  courage  capable  of  being  excited  to  the  highest  pitch : 
in  short,  the  combination  of  qualities  necessary  for  partisan  troops.  The 
events  of  more  than  one  campaign  have  proved,  besides,  that  these  irregulars 
can  be  used  successfully  in  line  against  the  best  regular  cavalry  of  Europe. 

Circumstances  of  geography  and  climate  have  given  to  these  men  a 
race  of  horses  in  every  way  adapted  to  their  riders ;  the  Cossack  horse 
is  excelled  by  none  in  activity  and  hardiness. 

The  Cossack  neglects  no  opportunity  of  feeding  his  horse ;  during  short 
halts,  even  under  fire,  he  gives  him  whatever  is  to  be  had ;  the  horse  re- 
fuses nothing  that  is  ofi'ered  him,  and  eats  whenever  he  has  the  oppor- 
tunity, for  he  has  not  acquired  the  pernicious  habit  of  eating  only  at 


208  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

regular  hours.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  power  of  endurance  of 
the  Cossacks  and  their  horses  from  the  fact  that,  in  a  certain  expedition 
against  Khiva,  there  were  3,500  regular  Russian  troops  and  1,200 
Cossacks :  of  the  regulars  but  1,000  returned,  of  the  Cossacks  but  60 
perished. 

The  tendency  of  events,  during  the  present  century,  has  been  to  assimi- 
late the  organization  of  the  Cossacks  to  that  of  the  regulars,  to  a  certain 
extent :  whether  the  effect  of  this  has  been  to  modify  or  destroy  their 
valuable  individual  characteristics  may  yet  remain  to  be  proved  in  a 
general  war ;  the  events  of  the  campaign  of  Hungary  are  said  to  in- 
dicate that  more  regularity  of  action  has  by  no  means  impaired  their 
efl&ciency. 

This  brief  description  of  the  qualities  of  the  irregular  cavalry  indicates 
at  once  the  use  made  of  them  in  war;  they  watch,  while  the  regulars 
repose.  All  the  duty  of  advanced  posts,  patrols,  reconnoissances,  escort- 
ing trains,  carrying  despatches,  acting  as  orderlies,  &c.,  is  performed  in 
preference  by  the  Cossacks;  the  consequence  is,  that,  on  the  day  of 
battle,  the  regular  cavalry  are  brought  upon  the  field  in  full  force  and 
undiminished  vigor.  Under  cover  of  these  active  irregulars,  a  Russian 
army  enjoys  a  degree  of  repose  unknown  to  any  other;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  difficult  for  their  antagonists  to  secure  their  outposts  and 
foil  their  stealthy  movements. 

The  rapidity  and  length  of  their  marches  are  almost  incredible;  a 
march  of  40  miles  is  a  common  thing;  they,  will  make  forced  marches 
of  70  miles ;  in  a  thickly-settled  country  they  have,  in  two  days,  made 
six  marches  of  ordinary  cavalry  without  being  discovered. 

In  concluding  this  subject,  it  is  impossible  to  repress  the  conviction 
that  in  many  of  the  tribes  of  our  frontier  Indians,  such  as  the  Delawares, 
Kickapoos,  &c.,  we  possess  the  material  for  the  formation  of  partisan 
troops  fully  equal  to  the  Cossacks ;  in  the  event  of  a  serious  war  on  this 
continent,  their  employment,  under  the  regulations  and  restrictions  neces- 
sary to  restrain  their  tendency  to  unnecessary  cruelty,  would  be  produc- 
tive of  most  important  advantages. 

In  our  contests  with  the  hostile  Indians,  bodies  of  these  men,  com- 
manded by  active  and  energetic  regular  officers,  and  supported  by  regular 
troops,  would  undoubtedly  be  of  great  service. 

The  term  dragoon  was  originally  applied  to  troops  who  were  at  the 
same  time  cavalry  and  infantry.  For  example,  the  French  dragoons  of 
the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  would  on  one  day,  as  cavalry,  meet  and  defeat 
the  Imperial  cuirassiers,  and  on  the  next  day  form  the  assaulting  column 
in  the  attack  of  a  breach. 

It  is  necessary  not  to  confound  the  true  dragoon  with  such  troops  as 
our  mounted  rifles,  for  instance,  whose  proper  purpose  is  to  use  the  horse 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY.  209 

merely  as  a  means  of  rapid  locomotion,  always  dismounting  and  fighting 
on  foot  upon  reaching  the  scene  of  action. 

The  Russian  dragoons  are  the  only  real  dragoons  in  the  world ;  their 
arms,  equipment,  &c.,  have  been  heretofore  described. 

They  are  principally  employed  in  covering  retreats,  occupying  isolated 
posts,  making  sudden  attacks  upon  villages,  &c. 

When  they  dismount  to  fight  on  foot,  one  man  of  every  three  remains 
mounted,  and  holds  the  horses  of  the  others;  one  officer  remains  mounted 
with  each  squadron. 

When  dismounted,  they  conform  to  the  infantry  tactics. 

Since  the  9th  and  10th  squadrons,  armed  as  lancers,  do  not  dismount, 
each  regiment  furnishes  a  battalion  of  about  800  infantry. 

The  idea  has  been  thoroughly  carried  out;  for  they  are  in  reality  good 
cavalry  and  good  infantry. 

It  is  a  question  at  least  worthy  of  consideration,  whether  it  would  not 
be  advantageous  in  the  United  States  service  to  make  real  dragoons  of 
the  regiments  now  nominally  so,  employing  them  always  in  those  portions 
of  our  territory  where  the  Indians  frequent  the  plains  but  retire  to  the 
mountains  when  hard  pressed;  at  the  same  time  making  the  so-called 
cavalry  regiments  mere  regiments  of  light  cavalry,  to  act  only^on  the 
plains,  and  not  to  be  expected  to  fight  on  foot. 

The  lances  of  the  front  rank  of  the  cuirassiers  are  intended  to  be  used 
only  in  dose  order ;  while  the  lancer  regiments  proper  are  taught  to  use 
the  lance  both  in  close  and  open  order. 

From  the  great  use  of  the  lance  in  the  Russian  service,  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  is  a  favorite  weapon  with  them. 

I  have  been  told  by  an  old  general  of  Cossacks,  who  served  from  Aus- 
terlitz  to  Paris,  and  against  the  Persians  and  Turks,  that  "  the  Cossack 
never  uses  his  sabre,  but  depends  altogether  on  his  lance,  and  uses  his 
carbine  only  to  give  signals."  He  was  also  strongly  in  favor  of  snaffle- 
bits,  sharp  spurs,  and  Balaklava  charges.  Nevertheless  the  chasseurs 
d'Afrique  told  marvellous  stories  of  the  expertoess  of  the  Cossack  in  the 
use  of  the  musket  on  horseback ;  and  the  Cossacks  of  the  line  of  the 
Caucasus,  engaged  almost  daily  in  hand-to-hand  conflicts,  have  abandoned 
the  lance,  and  they  are  more  dreaded  by  the  mountaineers  of  the  Cau- 
casus than  any  other  Russian  troops. 

Against  the  Indians  of  our  plains,  who  have  no  sabres,  the  far-reaching 
lance  would  no  doubt  be  an  effective  weapon ;  yet  a  light  sabre  would  be 
about  as  much  so,  and  far  less  in  the  way. 


210 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


EXPLAiN'ATIOI^  OF  SIGI^S. 


General  of  division. 


-General  of  brigade. 


— Colonel. 


-Commander  of  battalion. 


I 

i 

■-- -Junior  field  officer. 

I Senior  adjutant. 

I Adjutant. 

f 

■ Officer  with  the  markers. 

LI -Division  quartermaster. 

i —Captain. 

A "First  lieutenant. 

* Second  lieutenant. 

■ Ensign. 

• Orderly  sergeant. 

* Sergeant. 

*t- Color-bearer. 

* Right  guide. 

db..... -Left  guide. 

A Right  flank  aligner. 

jfa. -Left  flank  aligner. 

ff. , Marker. 

5 Color-files. 


— Skirmisher. 

•Riflemen. 
—  Drum  major. 

^ - Band. 

I 

■- Regimental  chief  horn-player. 

■ Battalion  chief  horn-player. 

•• Horn-player. 

■ Regimental  chief  drummer. 

■L Battalion  chief  drummer. 

■— Drummer. 

A Fifer. 

H Column  by  platoons,  right  in  front 

B Column  by  platoons,  left  in  front. 

m Double  column  on  the  centre  platoon. 

^ Column  of  attack. 

'^       •         ""■— — First  regiment. 

Second  regiment. 

Third  regiment. 
ftl I        mm„-Mim Fourth  regiment. 


lJyr}^^yt^^^?^:^2£j^^-:<-2LU3  First  position. 
Second  position. 
I^Final  position. 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY.  211 


CHAPTEK  ly. 

ON  THE  RUSSIAN  INFANTRY. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE   INFANTRY  TACTICS. 

The  habitual  formation  of  the  infantry  is  in  three  ranks ;  from  eight 
to  three  men  are  formed  in  two  ranks;  three  or  two  men  in  one  rank. 

A  regiment  may  be  composed  of  two,  three,  four,  or  five  battalions, 
which  are  numbered  as  the  1st,  2d,  3d,  &c. 

When  the  regiment  is  deployed  in  one  line,  the  battalions  are  posted 
from  right  to  left  in  the  order  of  their  numbers. 

Every  battalion  consists  of  four  companies,  arranged  as  follows : — 

In  the  grenadier  regiments,  of  one  grenadier  and  three  fusileer  com- 
panies ;  in  the  infantry  regiments,  of  one  grenadier  and  three  musketeer 
companies ;  in  the  carbineer  regiments  and  rifle  battalions,  of  one  car- 
bineer and  three  rifle  companies.  Sapper  battalions  are  composed  of  four 
companies,  called  1st,  2d,  3d,  and  4th  sapper  companies.  In  the  in- 
terior garrison  regiments,  &c.,  the  companies  are  known  only  by  their 
numbers. 

In  all  the  regiments  the  grenadier  or  carbineer  companies  bear  the 
numbers  of  their  respective  battalions ;  the  other  companies  are  numbered 
in  a  regular  series  through  the  whole  regiment :  e.g.,  in  the  first  battalion 
the  fusileer,  musketeer,  or  rifle  companies  are  numbered  as  1st,  2d,  and 
3d ;  in  the  second  battalion  they  are  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th ;  and  in  a  similar 
manner  for  the  remaining  battalions. 

Battalions  may,  exceptionally,  consist  of  three  companies. 

Grenadier  and  carbineer  companies  consist  of  men  distinguished  by 
their  courage  in  battle,  good  conduct,  zeal  for  their  duties,  and  clear 
understanding  of  the  drill. 

The  men  are  arranged  in  each  company  according  to  height,  the  tallest 
third  part  being  in  the  front  rank,  the  next  tallest  in  the  rear  rank,  the 
remainder  in  the  centre  rank. 

In  sizing  the  battalion,  the  companies  are  so  arranged  that  the  men  in 
the  right  wing  are  sized  from  right  to  left,  and  those  in  the  left  wing 
from  left  to  right,  except  the  eighth  platoon,  which  is  also  sized  from 
right  to  left. 

Incomplete  files  are  placed  on  the  left  flanks  of  the  platoons ;  if  only 
one  man  is  wanting  in  a  file,  the  centre  rank  is  left  vacant. 


212  THE    AR.MIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  files  are  numbered  from  right  to  left  in  each  platoon ;  the  men  in 
each  rank  have  the  number  of  their  file. 

Each  platoon  is  divided  into  two  half  platoons ;  that  on  the  right  is 
the  first,  the  other  is  the  second. 

Each  platoon  "is  also  divided  into  sections  of  not  less  than  four  nor 
more  than  six  files  each. 

The  sections  are  numbered  from  right  to  left. 

To  equalize  the  platoons  of  a  battalion,  men  may  be  transferred  from 
one  company  to  another;  but  the  6lite  companies  are  kept  distinct  from 
the  others. 

Platoons  should  not  contain  less  than  fourteen  files;  therefore,  when 
a  battalion  consists  of  from  56  to  84  files,  it  is  divided  into  four  platoons ; 
if  of  from  84  to  112  files,  into  six  platoons;  if  of  more  than  112  files, 
into  eight  platoons'. 

Battalions  of  three  companies  are  divided  into  six  platoons,  unless  they 
contain  less  than  eighty-four  files,  when  they  are  divided  into  four  pla- 
toons. The  best-drilled  men  are  placed,  in  preference,  on  the  flanks  of 
platoons,  half  platoons,  and  sections,  then  in  the  front  rank;  but  the  rule 
with  regard  to  size  must  be  violated  as  little  and  as  imperceptibly  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  ranks  are  twenty-eight  inches  apart,  measured  from  heel  to  heel. 

The  interval  between  battalions  of  the  same  regiment  is  twenty  paces. 

The  pace,  when  used  as  a  measure  in  the  infantry  service,  is  two  and 
a  half  feet,  (30''.) 

POSTS   OF   THE   OFFICERS. 

(Fig.  111.)  The  colonel,  mounted,  is  from  fifty  to  sixty  paces  in  front 
of  the  centre  of  the  regiment. 

The  commanders  of  the  battalions  are  thirty  paces  in  front  of  the 
centres  of  their  respective  battalions. 

The  battalion  adjutant  is  on  the  right  flank  of  the  battalion,  on  the 
right  of  the  field  music;  the  junior  field  officer  on  the  right  of  the  bat- 
talion adjutant;  the  officer  detailed  as  marker  is  on  the  right  of  the 
junior  field  officer  of  the  first  battalion;  the  regimental  adjutant  on  the 
right  of  the  marker ;  all  these  officers  are  mounted. 

In  every  battalion  the  officers  are  assigned  to  platoons  as  follows : 

The  1st  platoon  is  commanded  by  the  captain  of  the  grenadier  company. 

1st 

u 

2d 

a 

8d 

a 

grenadier 


The  2d 

u 

u 

1st  lieut.  " 

The  3d 

iC 

u 

captain.    " 

The  4th 

(I 

a 

1st  lieut.  " 

The  5th 

a 

ic 

captain     " 

The  6th 

(( 

it 

1st  lieut.  " 

The  7th 

(( 

(C 

captain     " 

The  8th' 

i( 

it 

1st  lieut.  " 

213 


Format 


'Ju^^^jSf^ 


zeFaces 


30 


-;         «^ 


2nd.  Battalion 


The  Grenadier  company  is  divided— one  pk 


)/a  regiment. 
.111. 


214 


\io 


,  !fc 


on  the  right  of  the  battalion,  the  other  on  the  left. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  215 

The  commanders  of  the  first  7  platoons  are  posted  on  the  right  of  the 
front  rank  of  their  platoons ;  the  commander  of  the  5th  platoon  separates 
his  platoon  from  the  color-guard ;  the  commander  of  the  8th  platoon  is 
on  the  left  of  its  front  rank,  the  next  officer  (the  2d  Heutenant  of  the 
grenadier  company)  on  the  right  of  its  front  rank. 

The  commander  of  the  1st  platoon  of  each  division  commands  the 
division ;  the  rest  of  the  officers  are  posted,  as  file-closers,  two  paces  in 
rear  of  the  rank  of  non-commissioned  file-closers. 

POSTS    OF   THE    SERGEANTS. 

The  sergeants  remain  with  their  companies,  but  the  number  may  be 
equalized  among  the  platoons. 

In  battalions  of  8  platoons,  when  there  are  25  or  more  files  in  each 
platoon,  there  must  be  at  least  67  sergeants;  if  the  platoons  have  less 
than  25  files,  there  must  not  be  less  than  59  sergeants. 

'Any  deficiency  in  the  number  of  sergeants  is  made  up  by  detailing  the 
senior  corporals  as  acting  sergeants. 

The  sergeants  are  posted  as  follows  : 

1  as  color-bearer. 

5  color-sergeants. 

1  sergeant  separates  the  color-files  from  the  4th  platoon. 

3  markers,  whose  posts  and  duties  will  be  given  hereafter. 

16  right  and  left  guides  of  platoons :  of  these,  9  stand  in  the  rear 
rank  and  cover  the  officers  posted  in  the  front  rank ;  the  remaining  7  left 
guides  are  in  the  rank  of  file-closers,  behind  the  left  files  of  their  re- 
spective platoons. 

16  sergeants,  called  aligners,  whose  duty  it  is  to  mark  the  positions  of 
the  flanks  of  the  platoons  in  new  formations,  are  posted  behind  the  second 
files  from  the  flanks  of  each  platoon  3  as  far  as  regards  the  posting  of  these 
sergeants,  the  color-guard  is  not  regarded  as  belonging  either  to  the  4th 
or  5th  platoon ;  the  rest  of  the  sergeants  are  posted  in  the  rank  of  file- 
closers,  at  equal  intervals  apart.  Among  this  number  are  :  1,  the  orderly 
sergeants,  who  are  the  2d  file-closers  from  the  right  of  the  platoons,  com- 
manded by  their  captains ;  2,  the  reserve  and  vice  markers,  (for  whom 
see.  under  the  head  of  markers,)  who  are  also  posted  as  file-closers. 

The  non-commissioned  file-closers  are  two  paces  behind  the  rear  rank. 

THE   COLOR-GUARD. 

This  consists  of  6  color-sergeants  and  4  color-files,  (12  men.)  The 
color-sergeants  are  selected  from  among  those  of  the  battalion  who  are 
most  rigid  in  the  performance  of  their  duty,  and  who  have  the  greatest 
regularity  in  marching ;  they  are  selected  of  the  same  height  as  much  as 
possible. 


216  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  honor  of  bearing  the  color  is  reserved  for  the  sergeant  who  has 
performed  the  most  meritorious  services,  choosing,  if  possible,  one  who  is 
decorated.  The  color-sergeants  are  formed  in  2  ranks, — the  color-bearei 
and  2  sergeants  l^one  on  each  side  of  him)  in  the  front  rank,  the  remaiij- 
ing  3  in  the  rear  rank ;  as  will  be  seen  under  the  head  of  markers,  the 
centre  rank  is  filled  by  3  sergeants,  who  are  markers. 

The  color-sergeants  are  posted  in  the  centre  of  the  battalion  between 
the  color-files,  and  belong  to  the  5th  platoon,  with  which  they  execute  all 
the  movements. 

The  sergeant  covering, the  color-bearer  in  the  rear  rank  is  called  the 
assistant.    Ensigns  may  be  detailed  as  assistants  if  sufficiently  well  drilled. 

Two  color-files  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  color-sergeants;  they  are 
separated  from  the  4th  platoon  by  a  sergeant,  but  are  alongside  of  the 
commander  of  the  5th  platoon. 

In  battalions  of  6  platoons  the  color  sergeants  and  files  are  as  just  ex- 
plained ;  in  battalions  of  4  platoons  the  color-files  are  as  before,  but  there 
are  only  4  color-sergeants,  of  whom  1  is  color-bearer,  another  on  his  left, 
the  remaining  2  in  the  rear  rank. 

Every  battalion  has  a  color. 

MARKERS. 

As  markers  there  are  selected  adroit,  active,  and  intelligent  sergeants 
and  privates, — ^in  preference,  those  who  can  read  and  write.  The  rules 
observed  in  the  choice  of  color-sergeants  also  apply  to  the  markers.  There 
should  be  8  markers  in  each  battalion,  i.e.  2  for  each  company,  of  whom 
1  is  a  sergeant,  the  other  a  private ;  the  privates  are  called  vice  markers. 
Of  the  4  sergeants,  3  have  guidons,  but  the  4th,  called  the  reserve 
marJcer,  has  none.  Those  with  guidons  cover  the  color-sergeants  in  the 
centre  rank;  they  wear  no  knapsacks,  and  carry  the  guidon-staff  in  the 
muzzle  of  their  muskets.  The  three  markers  with  guidons  are  numbered 
as  1,  2,  and  3,  from  right  to  left;  No.  1  marks  the  new  position  of  the 
right  flank  of  the  battalion,  No.  2  the  centre,  No.  3  the  left  flank :  if  the 
battalion  is  in  column,  they  are  similarly  employed  in  marking  the  new 
position  of  the  head  of  the  column. 

The  reserve  and  vice  markers  are  in  the  general  line  of  file-closers, 
armed  and  equipped  as  the  rest  of  the  battalion. 

In  battaflions  of  6  platoons  the  markers  are  posted  as  just  explained, 
but  in  those  of  4  platoons  those  with  guidons  are  in  one  rank,  in  rear  of 
the  centre  of  the  3d  platoon,  2  paces  behind  the  rank  of  non-commissioned 
file-closers. 

In  regiments  of  more  than  two  battalions  an  officer  is  detailed  as 
marker ;  his  post  has  already  been  given. 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY.  217 

When  the  regiments  have  but  two  battalions  each,  an  officer  is  detailed 
in  each  brigade  as  marker. 

A  senior  officer  is  always  detailed  in  each  division  to  direct  the  markers. 

MUSICIANS. 

The  band  is  posted  4  paces  on  the  right  of  the  first  battalion,  on  the 
alignment  of  the  centre  rank. 

The  field  music  of  the  first  battalion  is  on  the  right  of  the  band ;  in  the 
other  battalions  it  is  4  paces  from  the  right  flank  of  its  battalion. 

THE  GENERAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  THE  REGIMENT. 

The  colonel,  or,  in  his  absence,  the  officer  next  in  rank  in  the  regiment, 
is  responsible  for  the  general  instruction  of  the  officers,  sergeants,  and 
men  of  the  regiment. 

INSTRUCTION    OF   THE    OFFICERS. 

Every  officer  must  know  every  thing  in  the  infantry  tactics ;  the  mere 
knowledge  is  insufficient :  they  must  be  able  to  explain  the  rules,  and 
teach  the  soldiers  all  that  is  Required  of  them,  beginning  with  the  posi- 
tion, facings,  marching,  manual,  &c. 

The  colonel  must  maintain  a  constant  eye  to  this,  and  assemble  the 
officers  himself,  or  cause  the  commanders  of  battalions  to  do  so,  for  sepa- 
rate instruction. 

INSTRUCTION   OF   THE    SERGEANTS. 

They  are  required  to  know  every  thing  in  the  schools  of  the  recruit  and 
the  company,  the  skirmish  drill,  and  outpost  duty;  they  must  also  be  able 
to  instruct  the  men  in  these  subjects,  and  must  know  their  duties  in  the 
battalion  drill.  The  captains  are  immediately  responsible  for  this  instruc- 
tion, under  the  supervision  of  the  commanders  of  battalions. 

INSTRUCTION   OF  RECRUITS. 

The  first  year  of  a  recruit's  service  is  the  most  difficult,  and  the  most 
important,  as  forming  his  future  character  as  a  soldier ;  his  instruction  in 
the  drill  ought  not  to  be  pressed  until  he  fully  comprehends  the  first 
principles. 

1st  month. — ^Instruction  similar  to  that  of  the  cavalry  recruit. 

2d  month. — The  recruits  begin  to  learn  to  chant  the  signals  for  skir- 
mishers, commencing  with  the  simplest ;  they  learn  to  march  in  common 
time,  quick  time,  and  the  run ;  are  taught  the  skirmish  drill  without  arms, 
first  by  commands,  then  by  signals,  always  placing  platoon  opposite  platoon, 
that  they  may  the  more  readily  understand  the  relation  of  their  move- 
ments to  the  enemy.     They  are  also  taught  some  of  the  field  duties,  such 


218  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

• 
as  the  nature  of  guard  duty,  of  advanced  posts,  patrols,  and  the  duty  of 
a  sentinel  in  the  event  of  the  appearance  of  the  enemy. 

Especial  care  is  taken  to  exact  a  proper  soldierly  bearing  only  by 
degrees;  for  too  much  attention  to  it  in  the  beginning  produces  stiffness 
in  the  position,  facings,  and  marching,  exhausts  the  men,  and  does  more 
harm  than  good.  Every  day,  except  on  days  of  rest  and  feasts,  the 
recruits  are  assembled  by  companies,  half  an  hour  before  dinner  or 
supper,  and  the  signals  are  blown  for  their  instruction. 

Sd  month. — The  recruits  are  carefully  and  correctly  taught  the  facings, 
marching,  loading  as  skirmishers  without  the  motions. 

After  this  the  instruction  proceeds  regularly,  as  laid  down  in  the  school 
of  the  recruit. 

There  should  be  two  drills  each  day ;  each  drill  lasting  not  longer  than 
from  one  hour  to  one  hour  and  a  haif. 

The  position  of  the  soldier  is  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  United 
States  tactics. 

The  facings  are  made  by  turning  on  the  left  heel,  steadying  the  cartridge- 
box  with  the  right  hand. 

The  about-face  is  made  to  the  left,  instead  of  to  the  right ;  instead  of 
placing  the  right  foot  behind  the  left,  it  is  carried  forward  until  the  heel 
is  against  the  joint  of  the  left  great  toe;  the  turn  is  made  on  both  heels, 
and  the  right  heel  brought  up  on  the  same  line  with  the  left,  on  the  com- 
pletion of  the  movement. 

MARCHING. 

The  recruit  is  instructed  in  marching  by  the  numbers,  first  in  3  motions, 
then  in  2,  finally  in  1. 

TO   MARCH   IN    THREE   MOTIONS. 

1st  motion. — (Fig.  112.)  Without  moving  the  body  or  hip,  advance 
the  left  foot  just  clear  of  the  right,  the  toe  touching  the  ground,  heel  a 
little  raised,  knee  straight. 

2d  motion. — '(Fig.  113.)  Raise  the  left  foot,  and  move  it  nearly  28 
inches  in  front  of  the  right  heel,  knee  straight,  foot  parallel  to,  and  10^ 
inches  above,  the  ground. 

Sd  motion. — (Fig.  114.)  Incline  the  body  gently  forward,  plant  the 
left  foot  flat  on  the  ground,  28  inches  from  the  right,  (from  heel  to  heel,) 
rest  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  left  leg,  and  bring  the  right  foot  to 
the  position  shown  in  the  engraving. 

The  right  foot  is  then  advanced,  by  the  motions,  as  described  for  the 
left  foot. 

The  recruit,  being  well  instructed  in  marching  in  3  motions,  is  required 
to  execute  the  same  thing  in  2  motions : 

1st  motion. — Execute  the  first  two  motions  of  the  preceding. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


219 


220 


THE    ARMIES   OF    EUROPE. 


o 


to 


^^^ 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY.  221 

2d  motion. — Execute  tlie  third  motion  of  the  preceding,  with  the  dif- 
ference that  the  right  foot  does  not  remain  in  rear,  as  shown  in  fig.  114, 
but  is  at  once  moved  forward. 

The  march  in  one  motion  is  executed  according  to  the  principles  just 
laid  down. 

Common  time  is  at  the  rate  of  from  70  to  72  steps  per  minute,  each 
step  28  inches,  from  heel  to  heel. 

Quick  time  is  at  the  rate  of  110  steps  per  minute,  and  28  inches  long 

The  free  step  differs  from  the  last  only  in  a  free  swinging  of  the  arms 
being  permitted  j  the  musket  is  carried  at  a  slope,  the  right  arm  swinging 
freely,  across  the  body,  from  the  elbow  down,  in  cadence  with  the  step ; 
this  step  is  much  used,  even  when  passing  in  review. 

The  run  is  at  the  rate  of  150  steps  per  minute,  each  step  28  inches; 
the  piece  is  carried  at  a  trail,  the  left  hand  steadying  the  cartridge-box. 

The  individital  oblique  step  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  in 
Scott's  tactics. 

The  route  step  is  at  the  rate  of  100  steps  a  minute,  and  is  of  the  usual 
length  of  28  inches,  so  that  the  men  may  march  about  21  miles  per  hour. 
The  men  are  permitted  to  carry  their  arms  at  will,  and  to  move  easily,  it 
being  only  required  that  they  keep  their  places,  and  do  not  lag  behind ; 
if  bayonets  are  fixed,  the  muzzles  must  be  up. 

THE    MANUAL   OF   ARMS. 

This  is  generally  so  similar  to  that  in  the  United  States  semce,  that 
merely  some  exceptions  need  be  noted. 

Present  arms. — The  piece  is  held  in  front  of  the  left  breast. 

Charge  bayonet. — Lock-plate  half  turned  up,  the  right  hand  (grasping 
the  handle)  is  on  the  seam  of  the  pants,  the  right  arm  being  extended  to 
very  nearly  its  full  length ;  hollow  of  the  right  foot  against  the  left  heel, 
(Fig.  115.) 

Right  shoulder  shift  arms. — x\s  in  the  United  States  rifle  tactics,  except 
that  the  right  hand  grasps  the  small  of  the  stock. 

Slope  arms. — ^The  left  hand  is  raised  and  thrown  forward,  so  that  the 
stock  rests  on  the  shoulder  just  above  the  guard,  the  barrel  at  an  angle  of 
about  45°,  (Fig.  116.) 

Parade  rest. — The  feet  are  not  moved,  the  barrel  is  thrown  across  the 
body,  and  rests  in  the  hollow  of  the  left  forearm;  the  hands  on  the  gun- 
sling,  left  hand  above  the  right. 

Figs.  117  to  120  show  one  method  of  saluting  by  a  sentinel  at  an. 
order. 

When  the  soldier  hands  his  musket  to  the  inspector,  he  holds  it  in  his 

left  hand,  at  arm's  length,  the  piece  vertical,  the  lock  towards  the  inspector,. 

the  left  hand  grasping  it  just  above  the  lock,  (Fig.  121.) 

14 


222  THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

SCHOOL  OF  THE   COMPANY. 

Each  company  of  not  less  than  28  files  is  divided  into  2  platoons ;  if 
the  company  consists  of  less  than  28  files,  it  composes  only  a  single  pla- 
toon.    In  the  tactics  a  company  of  2  platoons  takes  the  name  of  division. 

(Fig.  122.)  In  an  isolated  company,  the  officers,  sergeants,  &c.,  are 
posted  as  follows : 

The  captain  15  paces  in  advance  of  the  centre;  the  senior  lieutenant 
in  the  front  rank  on  the  right  of  the  1st  platoon,  which  he  commands ; 
the  2d  lieutenant  on  the  left  of  the  2d  platoon,  which  is  his  command ; 
the  3d  lieutenant  is  in  the  front  rank,  between  the  platoons;  if  there  are 
other  lieutenants,  they  are  posted  as  file-closers,  the  senior  behind  the 
centre  of  the  1st  platoon,  the  junior  in  rear  of  the  2d  platoon. 

If  there  is  a  deficiency  in  the  number  of  officers,  other  than  file-closers, 
the  number  is  made  up  by  sergeants,  beginning  with  the  orderly  sergeant. 
The  sergeants  are  posted  as  follows  : 

Four  right  and  left  guides  of  platoons ;  when  the  company  is  in  line, 
the  right  guide  of  the  1st  and  both  guides  of  the  2d  platoon  are  in  the 
rear  rank  covering  the  officers ;  but  the  left  guide  of  the  1st  platoon  is  in 
the  rank  of  file-closers,  behind  the  left  file  of  his  platoon. 

The  4  sergeants  detailed  as  aligners  (to  mark  the  new  front  in  the 
different  formations)  are  behind  the  2d  files  from  the  flanks  of  the 
platoons. 

The  orderly  sergeant  is  the  2d  file-closer  from  the  right  of  the  1st 
platoon.  The  remaining  sergeants  are  posted  as  file-closers  at  equal 
intervals  from  those  already  mentioned. 

The  drummers,  fifers,  and  horn-players  are  formed  in  one  rank,  on  the 
alignment  of  the  centre  rank,  4  paces  from  the  right  of  the  company. 

For  instruction  in  the  manual,  &c.,  the  company  is  sometimes  formed 
on  three  sides  of  a  square,  each  rank  forming  one  side. 

In  the  difierent  firings,  the  rear-rank  men  pass  their  pieces  to  those  in 
front  of  them. 

The  individual  oblique  step  is  never  used  for  a  distance  greater  than 
ten  paces ;  for  oblique  movements  longer  than  that,  each  man  half  faces 
to  the  right  or  left. 

To  wheel  a  division  (company  of  two  platoons)  to  the  right,  on  a  fixed 
pivot,  the  first  platoon  wheels  to  the  right,  and  the  second  acts  as  pre- 
scribed in  the  United  States  tactics  for  the  second  company  of  a  battalion 
changing  front  forward  on  the  first  company.  The  division  also  changes 
front  on  the  centre. 

In  route,  troops  march  in  column  by  platoons,  half  platoons,  or  sections. 
The  distance  between  the  ranks,  in  this  case,  is  from  three  and  a  half  to 
five  feet. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  223 


OP   SKIRMISHERS. 

Circumstances  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  sometimes  make  it  neces- 
sary for  infantry  to  act  in  scattered  parties,  instead  of  in  close,  compact 
order;  e.g.,  to  occupy  forests,  copses,  villages,  or  to  protect  different 
movements  of  troops  acting  in  close  order,  such  as  deployments,  flank 
marches,  movements  in  advance  or  retreat,  &c.;  such  service  is  called 
skirmisMng. 

As  entire  regiments  are  seldom  deployed  as  skirmishers,  there  are  in 
each  company  forty-eight  men  who  are  perfectly  instructed  in  that  duty, 
and  are  called  skirmishers.  Of  this  number,  twenty-four  are  held  in  con- 
stant readiness  to  act  upon  the  first  call  for  skirmishers,  and  are  called 
active  skirmishers;  the  remaining  twenty-four  are  held  in  readiness  to 
support  or  replace  the  others,  in  case  of  need,  and  are  called  reserve 
skirmishers. 

All  the  men  of  the  regiment  should,  however,  be  instructed  in  skirmish 
drill.  Each  captain  selects  from  his  company  the  four  sergeants  and 
forty-eight  privates  who  are  most  active  and  best  fitted  for  the  service  of 
skirmishers,  and  submits  their  names,  through  his  chief  of  battalion,  for 
the  approbation  of  the  colonel;  the  latter,  having  satisfied  himself 
that  they  possess  the  qualities  and  knowledge  necessary  for  skirmishers, 
appoints  them  as  such  in  regimental  orders ;  any  vacancies  are  filled  in 
the  same  manner. 

OF   THE   INSTRUCTION   AND   FORMATION   OF   SKIRMISHERS. 

It  is  necessary  that  a  skirmisher  should  be  active,  quick,  fiilly  informed 
as  to  the  object  of  his  service,  and  a  good  marksman. 

Although  the  skirmish  drill  itself  augments  the  activity  of  the  soldier, 
yet  it  is  very  useful  to  oblige  the  men  to  climb  fences  and  hedges 
promptly  and  actively ;  to  leap  streams,  ditches,  &c.,  in  addition  to  in- 
structing them  in  running,  as  a  preparation  for  the  drill. 

The  soldier  being  accustomed  to  move  and  act  in  close  order,  it  is 
necessary  to  impress  upon  him  that,  so  soon  as  he  finds  himself  in  open 
order,  he  need  no  longer  trouble  himself  about  the  step  or  alignment, 
but  should  execute  every  movement  easily  and  lightly,  turning  his  whole 
attention  towards  the  enemy,  thinking  how  to  injure  them  most  with  the 
least  inconvenience  to  himself,  and  availing  himself  of  every  feature  of 
the  ground  for  cover. 

For  this  purpose,  in  the  instruction  of  skirmishers,  the  officers  should 
turn  their  attention  to  the  advantages  to  be  taken  of  the  ground,  and 
explain  to  the  men  the  manner  of  availing  themselves  of  it :  for  example, 
if  they  have  hillocks  in  front  of  them,  they  may  lie  down  or  kneel  behind 
them ;  when  attacking  in  a  forest,  they  should  advance  from  tree  to  tree, 


224  THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

and,  having  thus  arrived  near  the  enemy,  endeavor  to  inflict  such  injury 
upon  him  as  to  drive  him  from  the  place ;  in  a  retreat  through  a  forest, 
they  should  cover  themselves  behind  trees  and  bushes,  thus  defending  the 
position  and  their  comrades ;  they  should  also  be  instructed  how  to  lie 
down  in  ditches,  behind  fences,  hedges,  &c.,  and  how  to  use  their  weapons 
to  advantage  in  all  positions. 

If  the  signal  to  lie  down  is  given  in  broken  and  covered  ground,  the 
officers  must  see  that  the  men  take  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  locality. 

The  skirmishers  must  mutually  support  each  other,  concentrating  their 
fire  upon  the  points  where  they  can  do  most  damage  to  the  enemy,  as, 
e.g.,  upon  the  officers,  on  masses  of  men,  on  the  men  and  horses  with- 
the  artillery,  upon  the  points  to  be  attacked,  and  in  the  defence,  upon 
points  where  the  enemy  presents  himself  in  close  order,  such  as  cause- 
ways, bridges,  hoUow  ways,  &c. 

The  skirmishers  must  be  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  the  ar- 
tillery of 'the  enemy  can  do  them  no  harm;  that  in  forests,  ravines, 
behind  ditches,  &c.,  cavalry  cannot  injure  them;  in  exposed  positions 
they  always  have  their  own  cavalry  or  infantry  in  close  order  to  protect 
them. 

The  men  deployed  as  skirmishers  must  always  be  prepared  to  use  the 
bayonet,,  especially  against  single  horsemen. 

Although  it  has  been  said  above  that  skirmishers  should  move  and  act 
freely,  they  should  never  lose  their  soldierly  bearing. 

In  skirmishing  order  the  men  are  not  permitted  to  converse;  all  noise, 
clamor,  and  even  cheers,  are  strictly  forbidden,  unless  special  permission 
is  given. 

The  movements  of  skirmishers  are  made  either  at  the  free  step  or 
the  run. 

The  order  of  battle,  as  skirmishers,  consists  of  a  chain  of  skirmishers, 
with  a  reserve  in  rear.  The  chain  consists  of  pairs  of  men  at  a  certain 
interval  apart;  this  interval  will  vary  with  circumstances,  but  should 
never  be  greater  than  15  paces.  The  intervals  need  not  be  equal,  for 
each  pair  must  seek  shelter;  the  different  pairs  may  be  as  much  as  10 
paces  in  front  or  rear  of  the  general  line.  In  each  pair,  the  rear-rank 
man  is  2  paces  to  the  right  and  3  in  rear  of  his  front-rank  man,  whether 
moving  or  at  a  halt. 

The  duty  of  the  chain  is  to  weaken  and  harass  the  enemy  by  a  well- 
aimed  fire,  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  a  successful  attack  by  the  troops 
in  close  order,  or  to  cover  their  movements. 

The  reserve  follows  the  movements  of  the  chain  at  the  distance  of  from 
80  to  150  paces,  availing  itself  of  whatever  cover  the  ground  affords ;  it 
may  be  employed  for  protecting  the  flanks  of  the  chain,  or  for  turning 
those  of  the  enemy. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


225 


f 


D 

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o 

■^ 

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5* 

5 

o 

o 

5 

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B 

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O        ^B       _  ^-r^  CO 


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»        «P        • 


226  THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 

Fig.  125.  Fig.  126. 


Close  column  by  platoons. 
Fig.  127. 


A         lb         di         ^ 


Double  column  on  centre  platoon. 


Close  column  by  divisions. 


Fig.  128. 


M        til        A        lb        & 


imi 


Double  column  on  centre  division. 


lb      lb      4 


Column  of  attack. 
(For  scale,  see  p.  225.) 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY 


227 


¥       *        » 


f        T 


W  ■?        f         '       »        ' 


fTVV'ffVV* 


L9 


I 

o 

g       § 

3 


228 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


Fiff.  131. 


r 

■i  a 

'.        ^     1 

* 

!. 

&  i 

^ 

fcdl 

Ir 

a  B-    1 

I 

— ^ 

Square  formed  from  deployed  front. 


Fig.  132. 


Square  formed  from  column  of  attack. 


Fig.  133. 


, 

4- 

^^'•""'■""' 

-Li^^-C — •. -i^W/.^ 1        I 

—   —           -1 

^'^  ' 

:±i            t±j         -^1          - 

JET 

1 


\ 


D    LJ  ^.    I 


J 


3» 


[ 

J 

^_ 

■     LJ 

^^.r 

, 

—            

-_       

-^ 

%> 


Square  formed  from  close  columns  by  platoons — right  in  front. 
(For  scale,  see  p.  227.) 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 
Fig.  134. 


229 


Square  formed  from  double  column  on  centre 
platoon. 


Fig.  135. 


Formation  of  skirmishers  in  a  square  formed 
from  deployed  front. 


cKCTrruOj 


Formation  of  skirmishers  in  a  square  formed 
from  column  of  attack. 

(For  scale,  see  p.  227.) 


■  D-i 


^:?" 


•i  9S:- 


230  THE    ARMIES    OF   EURO PK 


Fig.  138. 


Formation  of  skirmish- 
ers in  a  close  column 
by  platoons. 


Fig.  139. 


Formation  of  skirmish- 
ers in  a  column  dou- 
bled on  the  centre 
platoon. 

Fig.  140. 


1  rngfe.  tsa^^u,.,,.. .^VV^K^nV^ 


*fe]|iiiitJitJl*  *iiiiiJ««||^ 


»fe||iiiihiitt*  *lliJiitin]|^ 


Formation   of   skirmishers    in    column   of 
attack. 

(For  scale,  see  p.  231.) 


T5E    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


231 


Rir 


-1 


232 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


a    - 


^. 


L-t 


^ 


a 


4    - 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  233 

Commands  to  skirmishers  are  given  by  the  voice  as  much  as  possible. 
In  close  order,  the  active  skirmishers  are  posted  in  the  rear  rank,  12  in 
each  platoon,  and  on  either  flank;  these  24  men,  when  ordered  out  as 
skirmishers,  first  form  a  platoon  in  2  ranks,  of  whom  one-half  are  de- 
ployed, the  rest  forming  the  reserve. 

The  reserve  skirmishers  are  also  in  the  rear  rank,  12  in  each  platoon. 

Skirmishers  rally  in  circles  to  resist  cavalry. 

A  company  may  be  formed  either  in  square  or  circle  for  the  same 
purpose.  When  the  line  in  close  order  advances,  the  skirmishers  fre- 
quently lie  down,  continue  firing  to  the  last  moment,  allow  the  line  to 
pass  over  them,  and  then  rise  and  take  their  places  in  the  rear  rank ;  the 
line  thus  meeting  the  enemy  in  3  ranks. 

SCHOOL    OF    THE   BATTALION. 

The  formation  of  the  battalion,  the  posts  of  the  officers,  sergeants,  &c., 
have  already  been  given. 

In  figs.  123,  124,  are  given  the  posts  of  the  officers,  sergeants,  &c.,  in 
columns  by  platoons  and  by  sections. 

In  figs.  125  to  129  are  given  the  formation  of  the  diff"erent  close 
columns  employed;  in  close  column  the  distance  between  subdivisions 
is  4  paces,  measured  from  front  rank  to  front  rank. 

Columns  are  formed  and  deployed  on  the  march  as  well  as  from 
a  halt. 

In  figs.  131  to  134  are  given  difi"erent  squares. 

In  fig.  130  is  given  the  formation  of  a  column  by  divisions,  at  half 
distance,  for  passing  in  review. 

In  figs.  135  to  140  are  given  examples  of  a  deployed  line,  columns, 
and  squares,  with  the  skirmishers  formed  ready  for  action,  if  needed. 
The  skirmishers  sometimes  move  out  directly  through  the  captains'  in- 
tervals. 

Fig.  141.  The  battalion  is  sometimes  formed  in  a  line  of  columns  of 
companies  by  platoons  in  two  ranks,  the  grenadier  company  being  held 
in  reserve;  this  formation  is  employed  when  the  battalion  is  to  operate  in 
obstructed  localities,  such  as  forests,  &c.,  when  many  skirmishers  are  to 
be  employed.  Each  company  column  consists  of  3  platoons,  each  in  2 
ranks;  the  1st  platoon  is  composed  of  the  front  and  centre  ranks  of  the 
1st  platoon  of  the  company;  the  2d  platoon,  of  the  same  ranks  of  the  2d 
platoon;  the  3d  platoon,  of  the  whole  rear  rank  of  the  company. 

Fig.  142  gives  the  order  of  battle  of  a  battalion  thus  formed. 

The  square  is  moved  in  any  direction  without  reducing  it.  When  it 
is  in  retreat,  the  rear  rank  of  the  rear  face  occasionally  halts,  faces  about, 
fires,  and  runs  back  to  its  place  in  the  square. 


234  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

EVOLUTIONS    OP   THE   LINE. 

Battalions  may  be  formed  in  a  deployed  line,  in  line  of  columns,  or  in 
general  column. 

The  interval  between  battalions  in  a  deployed  line  is  20  paces. 

A  line  of  columns  has  either  full  or  closed  intervals. 

Full  intervals  are  those  which  permit  the  battalions  to  deploy,  and 
have  the  prescribed  interval  of  20  paces  when  the  deployment  is  made. 

The  closed  intervals  are  45  paces  for  battalions  formed  in  double  column 
on  the  centre  platoon,  and  20  paces  for  all  other  columns. 

A  general  column  is  one  in  which  the  battalions  follow  each  other, 
every  battalion  being  formed  in  columns;  these  may  be  open  or  close;  in 
the  first  case,  the  distance  from  one  battalion  to  another  is  platoon  dis- 
tance, ^?ws  20  paces;  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  8  paces. 

In  general  column  the  distance  between  battalions  is  counted  from  the 
line  of  non-commissioned  file-closers  of  the  last  subdivision  of  one  bat-' 
talion  to  the  front  rank  of  the  next  battalion. 

Troops  may  be  formed  in  one  or  several  lines,  and  in  one  or  two  gene- 
ral columns.  Tl;ie  distance  between  the  lines,  or  columns,  depends  upon 
the  ground  and  the  judgment  of  the  commander. 

For  instruction  in  evolutions  of  the  line  the  troops  are  usually  formed 
in  2  lines;  the  first,  either  deployed  or  in  columns;  the  second,  200 
paces  in  rear  of  the  first,  and  usually  in  columns.  The  rules  laid  down 
in  the  cavalry  tactics  for  the  assignment  of  commanders  to  the  lines 
apply  here. 

The  generals  of  division  are  80  paces  in  front  of  the  division  de- 
ployed; generals  of  brigade,  50  paces;  colonels,  30  paces  in-front  of  the 
centre  of  their  commands. 

Figs.  143  to  147  give  the  positions  of  the  commanders  in  various 
formations. 

The  column  of  attack  is  usually  employed  in  the  various  movements 
of  changing  front,  passing  defiles,  &c.,  &c. 

ORDERS  OF  BATTLE  AND  OF  RESERVE,  AND  GENERAL  COLUMNS. 

When  troops  are  formed  in  order  of  battle,  or  in  general  column,  the 
muskets  and  guns  should  be  loaded. 

An  order  of  battle  is  an  arrangement  of  troops  which  enables  them  to 
attack  or  defend  themselves  successfully. 

Infantry,  with  its  artillery,  may  be  formed  in  4  orders  of  battle  and  1 
of  reserve,  (figs.  148  to  172.) 

The  orders  of  battle  are  named  as  follows : — 

The  first,  or  ordinary  order  of  battle. 

The  second,  or  close  order  of  battle. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


235 


"^ 


J^;-5K» 


w 

w 


\     1/ 
\    1/ 

\      ■ 
\ 


o 

a- 

I 


II 
I 

!     j 

I  ^ 
I/I 

I/I 


J     f 
I     i 

ill 


1/ 


236 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


Fig.  145. 


r...., 


f. 


jj  0= 


-^ 


Positions  of  commanders  in  a  brigade  formed  in  two 
lines  of  columns,  with  close  intervals. 


m 


Fig.  146. 


Positions  of  commanders,  <fec., 
in  a  brigade  formed  in  one 
general  close  column. 


Fig.  147. 


ff.v. 


'j-:f 


i 


Paces.  P^m- 


dMl 


Regiment  in  general  close  column,  with  loaded  arms. 


THE^RUSSIAN  ARMY.  237 

The  third,  or  extended  order  of  battle. 

The  fourth,  or  reinforced  order  of  battle. 

Each  order  of  battle  usually  consists  of  2  lines  of  battle  and  a  reserve. 

The  1st  and  2d  orders  of  battle  are  peculiarly  fundamental ;  the  large 
number  of  troops  held  in  reserve  renders  it  possible,  without  changing  the 
order  of  the  lines  of  battle,  to  pass  to  any  other  formation  which  circum- 
stances may  render  necessary. 

The  3d  order  of  battle  is  nothing  but  a  modification,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, of  the  1st  or  2d,  in  which  a  part,  or  even  the  whole,  of  the 
reserve,  is  employed  to  reinforce  or  extend  the  lines  of  battle. 

The  4th  order  of  battle  is  also  a  modification,  according  to  circum- 
stances, but  with  a  different  object,  of  the  1st  or  2d.  Here  the  lines  of 
battle  are  drawn  closer  together,  and  one-half  the  reserve  is  employed  to 
strengthen  the  2d  line  of  battle. 

The  employment  of  the  different  orders  of  battle  will  be  more  fully 
explained  under  the  head  of  their  adaptation  to  the  ground. 

General  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  orders  of  battle  from  general 
column. — The  orders  of  battle  may  be  formed  either  with  or  without  the 
employment  of  markers.  The  order  of  reserve  is  always  formed  with 
markers. 

If  the  order  of  battle  is  formed  under  fire  of  the  enemy,  then  the 
positions  of  the  battalions  and  batteries  of  the  1st  line  cannot  be  occupied 
by  the  markers  beforehand.  In  this  case  the  general  commanding  first 
establishes  on  the  new  line  1  or  2  battalions,  and  a  part  of  the  artillery, 
in  the  desired  direction,  and  then,  under  cover  of  skirmishers,  places  the  • 
rest  of  the  troops  in  position.  The  batteries  first  thrown  into  position  to 
cover  the  formation  of  the  infantry  must  remain  at  their  posts  until  the 
completion  of  the  formation,  although  they  are  not  opposite  their  inter- 
vals )  they  will  move  to  their  intervals  by  obliquing  at  a  trot,  when  the 
line  of  battle  first  advances  or  retreats. 

The  orders  of  battle  will  always  be  formed  by  means  of  markers :  a, 
when  the  troops  are  taking  up  a  position  for  bivouac ;  h,  when  forming 
out  of  range  of  the  enemy's  fire ;  and,  finally,"  c,  when  taking  up  a  new 
position  in  rear  of  that  first  occupied,  during  movements  in  retreat. 

In  time  of  peace,  troops  will  occasionally  be  exercised  in  the  formations 
without  employing  markers. 

In  general  columns  each  battalion  should  be  formed  in  double  column, 
on  the  centre  platoon,  closed  in  mass;  the  batteries  in  columns  by  sections. 

The  distance  between  the  parts  of  the  column  should  be  20  paces.  In. 
general  column  the  troops  move  with  the  free  step. 

The  remarks  upon  general  columns  in  the  cavalry  tactics  mostly  apply- 
to  general  columns  of  infantry. 

In  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  orders  of  battle,  the  distance  between  the  two- 

15 


238  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

lines  of  battle  is  200  paces ;  in  the  4tli  order  of  battle,  it  is  100  paces. 
The  reserve  is  usually  placed  behind  the  centre  of  the  lines  of  battle,  and 
in  one  or  two  lines  60  paces  apart;  in  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  orders,  the 
reserve  is  400  paces  from  the  2d  line  of  battle;  in  the  4th  order,  300 
paces.  The  distances  between  lines  are  estimated  from  the  front  rank  of 
the  leading  platoon  of  one  line  to  the  same  point  of  the  other  line. 

The  general  rule  is  that  the  junior  regiments  and  brigades  form  the  1st 
line ;  circumstances  may  justify  a  departure  from  this  rule. 

If  there  are  any  heavy  batteries  present,  at  least  one  should  always  be 
in  the  1st  line,  so  as  to  commence  firing  upon  the  enemy  at  the  greatest 
possible  distance. 

The  formation  of  orders  of  battle  near,  or  under  the  fire  of,  the  enemy, 
should  always  be  effected  under  cover  of  a  line  of  skirmishers. 

Figs.  148  to  165  give  the  orders  of  battle  and  reserve  for  brigades 
and  divisions  composed  of  regiments  of  four  battalions.  In  this  ease 
each  regiment  forms  in  two  lines;  the  regiment  on  the  right  flank 
has  its  junior  battalions  in  front;  that  on  the  left  flank  its  senior  bat- 
talions in  front.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  found  in  the  fourth 
order,  where  the  regiment  composing  the  centre  of  the  second  line  is 
formed  in  one  line,  and  in  the  reserves  of  the  third  and  fourth  orders, 
where  the  regiment  in  reserve  is  also  formed  in  one  line. 

Figs.  161  to  165  show  the  formation  of  four-battalion  regiments  in  gene- 
ral column. 

Figs.  166  to  168  give  the  order  of  reserve  and  the  first  and  second 
orders  of  battle  for  a  division  composed  of  regiments  having  three  bat- 
talions. 

Figs.  169  to  172  give  the  same  things  for  a  brigade  of  three-battalion 
regiments. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  ORDERS  OP  BATTLE  TO  THE  GROUND. 

The  orders  of  battle  and  of  reserve,  heretofore  explained,  should  suffice 
as  a  basis  for  all  formations  of  infantry  and  its  artillery.  In  every  iso- 
lated regiment,  brigade,  or  division,  its  commander  determines  upon  the 
formation  most  suitable  to  the  ground  and  the  purpose  in  view. 

The  order  of  reserve  is  employed  for  troops  in  bivouac,  out  of  action, 
or  in  reserve.  In  this  order  the  troops  are  arranged  with  the  smallest 
possible  distances  and  intervals,  in  order  to  cover  them,  until  coming  into 
action,  behind  accidents  of  the  ground,  from  the  view  and  fire  of  the 
enemy;  but  all  the  parts  are  so  arranged  that  any  order  of  battle  or  general 
column  can  readily  be  formed,  and  any  portion  be  detached  without  dis- 
turbing the  general  arrangement. 

The  first  order  of  battle  may  be  used  with  equal  advantage  in  attack 


THE   RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


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THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  245 

and  defence;  it  is  employed,  in  preference,  on  open  ground,  or  where  the 
enemy  can  be  most  injured  by  the  fire  of  deployed  battalions. 

The  second  order  of  battle  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  first,  but  it  can 
be  employed  on  all  kinds  of  ground,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which 
the  intervals  between  the  battalions  of  the  first  line  can  be  increased  or 
diminished.  It  is  most  frequently  used  in  actual  combat,  particularly 
where  the  ground  does  not  present  open  plains,  and  where  the  troops 
should  occupy  a  greater  space  than  in  the  first  order. 

The  third  order  of  battle  is  proper  only  for  defence,  on  account  of  the 
great  extent  of  the  lines  of  battle,  and  the  insignificance,  or  sometimes 
total  absence,  of  a  reserve.  As  a  general  rule,  the  use  of  the  third  order 
is  admissible  only  in  cases  where  it  is  possible  to  support  it  by  strong 
reserves  drawn  from  other  troops,  or  where  an  extensive  position  is  to  be 
occupied,  for  the  defence  of  which  a  weak  line  is  sufficient. 

The  fourth  order  of  battle  may  be  employed  for  an  obstinate  defence,  or, 
particularly,  for  a  vigorous  and  decisive  attack  upon  the  enemy  with  both 
lines  of  battle,  which  may  in  this  case  be  regarded  as  one  line,  on  account 
of  their  short  distance  apart. 

In  all  the  orders  of  battle  the  1st  line  of  battle  may  be :  (a)  deployed, 
for  defensive  purposes,  if  the  ground  in  front  is  favorable  for  the  action 
of  firearms  in  close  order ;  (h)  in  columns  doubled  on  the  centre,  either 
for  attack  or  defence,  if  the  ground  in  front  permits  the  use  of  firearms 
only  in  open  order. 

The  2d  line  of  battle  should  always  be  formed  in  columns  doubled  on 
the  centre,  since  its  destination  is  rather  to  serve  as  a  support,  reinforce- 
ment, or  relief  to  the  first  line,  than  to  engage  in  the  combat. 

The  reserve  is  always  formed  in  columns  doubled  on  the  centre  platoon, 
until  brought  into  action. 

The  lines  of  battle  and  the  reserve  may  be  formed  in  squares,  to  resist 
cavalry.  (Figs.  173  to  181.) 

Since  the  exact  formation  of  the  orders  of  battle,  according  to  the 
tactics,  is  possible  only  in  open  and  unobstructed  countries,  the  generals 
are  permitted  to  make  such  partial  changes  as  circumstances  may  require. 

The  skirmishers  in  front  of  the  1st  line  may  be  thrown  far  out,  or 
drawn  close  in,  but  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  covered  by  the  accidents 
of  the  ground  from  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  and  yet  be  able  to  injure  him 
by  their  own  fire. 

Those  parts  of  the  chain  that  are  under  cover  should  be  thick,  the 
exposed  portions  should  be  thin. 

The  batteries  serving  in  front  of  the  1st  line  should  be  posted  at  points 
which  command  the  ground,  and  from  which  the  whole  space  in  front 
may  be  swept ;  if  such  points  are  too  far  from  the  general  position  of  the 
battery,  they  are  occupied  by  detachments. 


246 


THE  ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


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THE   EUSSIAN   AEMY. 


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THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY.  249 

It  follows  from  this  that  all  the  batteries  need  not  be  on  the  same  line. 
The  number  of  guns  serving  with  the  1st  line  may  be  increased  oi 
diminished  according  to  circumstances. 

In  the  1st  line  several  battalions  may  be  thrown  forward,  or  moved  to 
one  side,  to  secure  a  more  advantageous  position ;  if  one  of  the  batteries 
of  the  1st  line  moves  to  the  right  or  left,  on  account  of  the  ground  or 
other  circumstances,  the  battalion  which  happens  to  be  in  rear  of  it 
doubles  the  part  screened  by  the  battery,  or  forms  into  column  j  if  neces- 
sary, the  general  of  brigade  moves  it  to  one  side,  provided  the  ground  and 
the  formation  of  the  other  troops  permit.  If  the  battery  moves  the  dis- 
tance of  a  whole  battalion  front,  the  battalion  may  give  up  its  place,  and 
occupy  a  new  position  in  rear  of  that  first  held  by  the  battery. 

For  these  reasons,  the  intervals  between  the  battalions  are  not  always 
equal,  nor  is  the  line  of  battle  necessarily  straight.  In  open  country, 
especially  against  an  enemy  superior  in  cavalry,  the  extreme  battalions  of 
the  2d  line  may  be  placed  behind  the  outer  flank  battalions  of  the  let 
line ;  the  formation  of  the  battalions  of  the  1st  line  may  also  be  changed 
in  conformity  with  circumstances  and  the  ground,  but  without  changing 
the  general  order  of  battle ;  for  this  purpose  some  of  the  battalions  of  the 
1st  line  may  be  formed  in  line  of  company  columns,  for  more  convenient 
action  as  skirmishers.  The  distance  between  the  two  lines  of  battle,  as 
well  as  that  between  the  2d  line  and  the  reserve,  may  be  increased  or 
diminished,  so  as  to  be  able  to  cover  the  troops  from  the  view  and  fire  of 
the  enemy,  by  means  of  the  accidents  of  the  ground. 

The  reserve  may  be  placed  in  rear  of  those  points  which,  om  account  of 
their  weakness,  or  being  the  key  of  the  position,  ought  to  be  reinforced 
at  once  if  vigorously  attacked  by  the  enemy ;  during  an  attack  the  reserves 
follow  in  rear  of  the  troops  who  are  to  attempt  the  key  of  the  enemy^s 
position ;  such  dispositions  of  the  reserve  should  be  carefully  concealed 
from  the  enemy. 

If  it  is  impossible,  in  such  cases,  to  conceal  the  reserve  behind  acci- 
dents of  the  ground,  it  is  best  to  post  it  behind  the  centre  of  the  lines  of 
battle. 

EXAMPLES    OF   THE  APPLICATION  OF   THE   ORDERS    OF   BATTLE   TO   THE 

GROUND. 

(Fig.  182.)  Application  of  the  1st  order  of  battle,  by  a  division  com- 
posed of  regiments  having  four  battalions. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  enemy  occupies  the  position  A  B. 

One  division  is  to  form  in  the  1st  order  of  battle,  on  the  position  C  D. 

The  nature  of  the  ground  requires  the  following  changes  in  the  order 
of  battle : 

Three  companies  of  the  battalion  on  the  right  flank  of  the  1st  line 


250 


THE    AEMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


occupy  the  village  D,  the  fourth  company  remaining  in  reserve  behind  the 
village. 

Two  pieces  of  the  1st  light  battery  are  also  in  this  village,  and  enfilade 
the  ravine  B  E.  The  battalion  on  the  left  flank  of  the  1st  line  approaches 
the  woods  C ;  one  company  is  detached  to  hold  the  woods.     The  battalion 

Fig.  182. 


Application  of  the  1st  order  of  battle  to  the  ground,  in  the  case  of  a  division  of  regiments 

having  4  battalions. 

on  the  right  flank  of  the  second  line  approaches  the  village  D,  to  support 
the  battalion  which  holds  it,  should  the  enemy  attack  it. 

The  reserve  is  posted  on  both  sides  of  the  main  road,  500  paces  from 
the  2d  line.  The  remaining  six  pieces  of  the  1st  light  battery  are  with 
the  reserve,  on  the  road,  in  column  by  sections. 

(Fig.  183.)  Application  of  the  1st  order  of  battle,  by  a  division  com- 
posed of  regiments  having  three  battalions. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  enemy  is  advancing  in  two  columns,  by  the  roads 
A  B  and  G  B. 


THj:   RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


251 


One  division,  in  the  first  order  of  battle,  is  to  occupy  the  position  D  E. 
In  conformity  with  the  ground,  the  following  modifications  are  made  in 
the  order  of  battle  : 

The  2d  heavy  battery  and  the  light  battery  form  one  general  battery, 
and  are  posted  on  the  height  in  front  of  the  village  F.    " 

Fig.  183. 


imm,M 


Application  of  the  1st  order  of  battle  to  the  ground,  in  the  case  of  a  division  of  regiments 

having  3  battalions. 

The  light  battery  enfilades  the  road  B  C ;  two  guns  of  the  heavy  battery 
sweep  the  bridge ;  the  remaining  pieces  of  the  heavy  battery  enfilade  the 
road  A  B. 

The  woods  on  the  right  flank  of  the  position  are  occupied  by  one  bat- 
talion of  the  4th  regiment,  formed  in  company  columns. 

To  strengthen  the  left  flank  of  the  position,  and  defend  the  ford,  there 
are  place^i  in  front  of  the  windmill  D  four  guns  of  the  1st  heavy  battery, 
and  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  two  battalions  of  the  2d  regiment,  in  columns 
of  attack;  the  remaining  battalion  of  this  regiment,  and  all  the  battalions 


252 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


of  the  1st  regiment,  compose  the  reserve,  which  is  posted,  in  a  hollow,  200 
paces  behind  the  village  F ;  the  remaining  half  battery  of  the  1st  heavy 
battery  is  posted  in  rear  of  the  1st  regiment,  in  column  by  sections. 

(Fig.  184.)  Application  of  the  2d  order  of  battle,  by  a  division  com- 
posed of  regiments  having  three  battalions. 

Fiff.  184. 


Application  of  the  2d  order  of  battle  to  the  ground,  in  the  case  of  a  division  of  regiments 

having  3  battalions, 

The  enemy  occupies  the  position  A  B. 

One  division,  in  the  2d  order  of  battle,  is  to  occupy  the  position  C  T). 
The  nature  of  the  locality  requires  the  following  modifications  in  the 
normal  order  of  battle. 

The  2d  heavy  battery  is  posted  on  the  hill  to  the  right  of  the  main 
road.  All  three  battalions  of  the  4th  regiment  are  on  the  left  of  the  road, 
the  3d  battalion  being  thrown  back  a  little  to  withdraw  it  from  the  fire  of 
the  enemy's  artillery ;  one  company  of  this  battalion,  formed  in  company 
column,  holds  the  wood  C.  The  1st  battalion  of  the  3d  regiment  is  on  the 
right  of  the  road,  behind  the  right  flank  of  the  2d  heavy  battery. 


THE   RUSSIAN  AR^Y. 


253 


The  reserve  is  posted  in  a  hollow,  in  rear  of  the  left  flank  of  the  lines 
of  battle,  in  order  to  be  able  to  reinforce  this  flank  should  it  be  attacked. 

(Fig.  185.)  Example  of  the  application  of  the  3d  order  of  battle,  by  a 
division  composed  of  regiments  having  4  battalions. 

Fig.  185. 


Application  of  the  3d  order  of  battle  to  the  ground,  in  the  case  of  a  divi^on  of  regiments 
,  having  4  battalions. 


It  is  supposed  that  the  enemy  occupies  the  position  A  B.  One  division,, 
in  the  3d  order  of  battle,  is  to  hold  the  position  C  F  D. 

The  nature  of  the  ground  renders  it  necessary  to  make  the  following 
changes  in  the  order  of  battle : 

The  lines  of  battle  consist  of  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  regiments,  the  latter  on 
the  right.  The  3d  battalion  of  the  3d  regiment,  formed  in  company 
column,  occupies  the  wood  J) ;  the  4th  battalion  of  the  same  regiment, 
formed  in  the  same  manner,  hc^lds  the  village  E ;  the  3d  battalion  of  the 
1st  regiment,  in  column  of  attack,  is  behind  the  building  F. 

16 


254  THE. ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

The  2d  battalion  of  the  2d  regiment  is  behind  the  gardens  of  the  vil- 
lage C  ;  one  company  of  this  battalion  occupies  the  gardens.  The  2d  light 
battery  is  posted  down  the  hill-slope,  between  the  1st  and  2d  regiments. 

The  3d  and  4th  battalions  of  the  2d  regiment  are  behind  its  1st  bat- 
talion. The  4th  regiment  composes  'the  reserve,  and  is  posted  in  a  hollow 
in  rear  of  the  2d  battalion  of  the  1st  regiment. ' 

Extracts  from  the  regulations  for  the  field  service  of  infantry  hi  time  of 

peace. 

In  time  of  peace,  troops  usually  march  by  regiments,  and  in  rare  cases, 
for  short  distances,  by  brigades  or  divisions. 

The  regiments  seldom  march  entire,  but  generally  by  battalion,  or  by 
company,  for  greater  convenience. 

Billeters  are  parties  sent  forward  at  the  beginning  of  the  day's  march 
to  secure  quarters  for  the  command  j  they  consist  of  1  sergeant  and  4  men 
per  company,  and  1  officer  per  regiment  j  also,  for  the  regimental  staff,  a 
sergeant,  1  musician,  1  soldier  of  the  train,  1  mechanic,  and  1  hospital 
attendant. 

The  billeters  of  an  isolated  battalion  are  under  an  officer,  and  have  a 
party  for  the  battalion  staff. 

The  billeters  of  a  brigade  are  under  its  senior  quartermaster. 

The  sergeants  have  the  company  guidons.     (See  cut,  p.  293.) 

When  circumstances  make  it  necessary  to  bake  bread  in  advance  of  the 
troops,  two  parties  of  bakers  are  sent  forward  for  the  purpose )  each  party 
consists  of  1  sergeant  and  8  men  per  company,  with  one  officer  for  each 
regiment,  or  separate  battalion. 

PREPARATIONS   FOR   THE   MARCH. 

About  an  hour  before  starting,  the  general  is  beaten,  as  a  signal  to  pre- 
pare to  march.  At  this  signal  the  men  dress,  and,  if  so  directed,  tuck 
inwards  the  skirts  of  the  overcoats  as  high  as  the  knees,  and,  if  it  is  rainy 
weather,  or  muddy,  tuck  their  pants  in  the  boot-tops ;  they  then  put  on 
their  accoutrements*,  the  wagons  are  packed,  and  every  thing  is  made  ready 
for  starting. 

When  the  assembly  is  beaten,  the  men  put  on  their  knapsacks,  fall  in  at 
the  various  rendezvous,  and  the  troops  are  then  formed  on  the  markers  in 
the  prescribed  order. 

The  wagons  are  formed  on  the  left  flank  of  the  troops,  or  in  their  rear, 
according  to  the  ground.  With  each  money-wagon  1  sergeant  and  2  men 
are  detailed  as  a  guard ;  the  sergeant  in  front,  and  the  men  behind  the 
wagon. 

Prayers  are  recited  before  leaving  the  general  rendezvous. 

On  the  march,  the  following  arrangenients  are  made  for  the  advanced 
and  rear  guards : 


255 


a  a 
g  2 


III  111 


256 


f£Z       o 


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III      «^     1 


(3. 

s   .    . 

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"  .5 Is-? 


II 


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Skho 


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liiHiiiiliJiiHiQHl 


'rin' 


5  «  «  = 


S   oil    i' 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  257 

(a)  For  a  company,  they  are  at  100  paces  from  it,  and  consist,  each,  of 
1  sergeant,  1  corporal,  and  6  men. 

Parties  less  than  a  company,  but  having  more  than  6  files,  send  out 
advanced  and  rear  guards  of  1  corporal  and  2  men,  to  the  distance  of  50 


(b)  For  a  battalion,  they  are  at  150  paces,  and  consist  respectively  of  a 
half  platoon,  commanded  by  an  officer,  and  have  a  drummer. 

(c)  For  a  regiment,  at  200  paces,  and  consist  of  a  platoon  each.  The 
grenadier,  rifle',  and  5th  platoons  are  not  detailed  on  this  duty. 

(fZ)  For  a  brigade,  at  300  paces,  and  consist  of  a  company  each.  The 
grenadier  and  color  companies  are  not  liable  to  this  detail. 

(c)  For  a  division,  at  400  paces,  and  consist  of  a  battalion  each. 

These  guards  are  sent  out  from  the  main  body  as  soon  as  it  has  left  the 
town  or  camp  where  it  passed  the  night.  As  soon  as  they  have  reached 
their  positions,  the  commanders  of  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  com- 
mand— 

PATROLS   TO   THE   FRONT. 

Upon  this, — 

(a)  In  the  case  of  a  company,  the  corporal,  with  2  men  behind  him, 
places  himself  25  paces  in  front  of  the  advanced  guard ;  the  remaining  4 
men  form  in  2  ranks,  with  the  sergeant  in  front.  In  the  rear  guard,  the 
corporal  and  2  men  fall  back  25  paces. 

(6)  In  the  case  of  a  battalion,  in  the  advanced  guard  1  sergeant  and 
the  2  flank  files  are  detached  as  patrollers ;  the  sergeant  conducts  the  2 
front-rank  men  50  paces  to  the  front;  the  centre-rank  men  place  them- 
selves on  the  sides  of  the  road,  6  paces  in  front  of  the  half  platoon ;  the 
rear-rank  men,  6  paces  in  rear  of  it,  also  on  the  sides  of  the  road.  In  the 
rear  guard,  the  sergeant  falls  back  50  paces,  with  the  rear- rank  men  of  the 
flank  files ;  the  centre-rank  men  fall  back  6  paces,  and  place  themselves 
on  the  sides  of  the  road ;  the  front-rank  men  advance  6  paces. 

If  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  are  formed  by  sections,  then  the  patrol- 
lers place  themselves  opposite  the  flanks  of  the  leading  and  rear  sections. 

(c)  Fig.  186.  From  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  of  a  regiment,  brigade, 
or  division,  patrollers  are  detached,  as  in  the  case  of  a  battalion. 

As  soon  as  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  have  quitted  the  main  body 
to  take  their  posts,  the  parties  of  the  day  are  posted ;  in  these,  the  officers 
do  not  draw  sabres ;  their  posts  are  as  follows  : 

(a)  In  a  company  marching  by  itself,  at  4  paces  in  rear  of  it  comes  the 
sergeant  of  the  day,  and  2  paces  behind  him  are  the  4  privates  of  the  day, 
in  one  rank,  having  a  drummer  of  the  day  on  their  right.  There  is 
another  drummer  of  the  day  at  the  head  of  the  company. 

(6)  In  a  battalion  marching  by  itself,  the  battalion  officer  of  the  day  is 


258  THE    ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

4  paces  in  rear  of  the  battalion ;  2  paces  behind  him  are  the  4  sergeants 
of  the  day,  (1  for  each  company,)  in  one  rank,  with  a  drummer  of  the 
day  on  their  right ',  2  paces  in  rear  of  the  sergeants  are  the  16  privates  of 
the  day,  (4  for  each  company,)  in  four  ranks,  in  the  order  of  their 
companies.  There  is  a  drummer  of  the  day  at  the  head  of  the  battalion, 
and  another  on  the  right  of  the  color-guard. 

(c)  In  the  march  of  a  regiment,  (Fig.  186,)  the  parties  of  the  day 
are  posted  in  each  battalion  as  just  explained;  the  regimental  officer 
of  the  day  marches  4  paces  in  rear  of  the  ambulances  following  the 
regiment. 

((i)  In  the  march  of  a  brigade  or  division,  the  brigade  or  division  officer 
of  the  day  follows  the  officer  of  the  day  of  the  last  regiment. 

In  a  division  there  is  no  brigade  officer,  of  the  day. 

The  brigade  or  division  officers  of  the  day  are  field  officers. 

When  the  guards  and  the  parties  of  the  day  have  moved  to  their  posts, 
the  commander  of  the  main  body  commands, — 

1.    Unfix  bayonets.     2.  Put  on  lock-covers. 

At  these  commands,  the  officers  return  sabres;  all  the  sergeants  and 
men  unfix  bayonets  and  put  on  their  lock-covers ;  the  colors  are  covered. 

If  the  overcoats  are  not  already  tucked  up,  it  is  now  done,  and  in  warm 
weather  the  corners  of  the  skirts  are  thrown  back ;  if  it  is  wet,  the  pants 
are  tucked  in  the  boot-tops. 

In  the  advanced  and  rear  guards,  and  the  escorts  of  the  money-wagons, 
the  officers  do  not  return  sabres,  nor  do  the  men  unfix  bayonets  or  put  on 
lock-covers;  but  they  tuck  up  the  overcoats,  and  arrange  the  pants  at  the 
same  time  with  the  main  body. 

When  the  preparations  are  completed,  the  dificrent  parts  of  the  main 
column  close  up  and  fill  the  places  left  vacant  by  the  guards  and  the 
parties  of  the  day. 

When  the  troops  are  ready  to  move,  the  commander  directs  the  drum- 
mers of  the  day  to  beat  the  field  march,  on  which  the  troops  start  at  the 
route  step,  and  in  the  order  prescribed;  in  the  main  body,  arms  are 
carried  at  will,  but  in  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  at  a  slope  or  on  the 
right  shoulder. 

In  time  of  peace,  the  troops  usually  march  by  sections,  right  in  front ; 
in  the  winter,  through  deep  snow,  they  may  march  by  the  flank. 

If  there  are  with  the  regiment  recruits,  supernumeraries,  or  weak  men, 
they  march,  under  an  officer,  behind  the  last  battalion,  having  the  party 
of  the  day  in  rear  of  them. 

The  wagon-train  is  arranged  as  in  the  cavalry  regulations. 

In  the  march  of  a  battalion  of  sappers,  the  engineer-wagons  are  at  the 
head  of  the  other  wagons. 


THE.RUSSIAN  ARMY.  259 


RULES   TO   BE   OBSERVED   ON    THE    MARCH. 

The  officers  and  sergeants  on  the  directing  flank  must  preserve  the 
distances  between  the  subdivisions  of  the  column ;  the  men  of  the  front 
rank  must  not  be  in  advance  of  the  guides. 

The  ranks  will  march  at  from  1^  to  2  paces  apart. 

The  men  may  march  freely  in  ranks,  but  must  not  quit  their  places, 
nor  straggle. 

On  the  march,  the  distances  will  be :  between  battalions,  50  paces ; 
between  regiments,  75 ;  between  brigades,  100  paces. 

On  good  roads  the  march  should  not  be  slower  than  21  miles  per 
hour. 

One-half  of  the  road  must  be  left  clear  for  persons  passing  by. 

When  passing  over  wooden  or  ponton  bridges,  the  cadenced  step  will 
never  be  used. 

Before  crossing  rivers,  the  drums  beat  "the  crossing." 

In  warm  weather  the  men  unhook  their  collars,  take  off  their  stocks, 
and  raise  the  chin-straps  over  the  visors. 

The  officers  must  always  march  at  their  posts,  and  never  collect  at  the 
head  or  on  the  flanks  of  the  column ;  in  bad  weather  they  may  throw 
their  cloaks  over  their  shoulders,  but  they  must  never  replace  the  helmet 
by  the  forage  cap. 

On  the  march,  the  commanders  of  subdivisions  must  see  that  the  men 
quit  their  places  under  no  pretext,  and  that  they  do  not  feign  fatigue. 
Some  privates  are  sent  with  sick  or  tired  men,  and  turn  them  over  to  the 
battalion  officer  of  the  day,  and  return  to  theif  posts.  The  battalion  officer 
of  the  day  then  sends  them,  under  charge  of  some  of  the  privates  of  the 
day,  to  the  surgeon  of  the  day  with  the  ambulances ;  these  privates  of 
the  day  remain  in  rear  until  the  first  halt,  or  the  end  of  the  march,  if 
there  is  no  halt. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  advanced  guard  to  inform  the  commander  of  all 
obstacles  encountered,  and  to  take  the  proper  measures  for  their  re- 
moval. 

The  rear  guard  take  up  all  stragglers,  and  at  the  first  halt,  or  at  the 
end  of  the  march,  turn  them  over  to  the  regimental  officer  of  the  day. 

That  the  men  may  rest,  and  set  themselves  to  rights,  a  halt  of  1  or  2 
nours'  duration  is  ipade  about  midway  in  the  march. 

If  the  march  is  long  and  difficult,  two  or  more  halts  may  be  made. 

The  places  for  halts  must  be  dry,  near  water,  and,  in  warm  weather,  in 
the  shade  of  trees.  Halts  should  not  be  made  in  villages,  but  near 
them. 

Having  halted,  arms  are  stacked,  without  fixing  bayonets;  the  men 
take  off  their  knapsacks  and  belts,  remove  their  helmets,  and  put  on  their 


260 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


forage  caps  ;f the  drums  are  piled,  and  the  colors  leaned  against  them, 
(figs.  187,  188.) 

The  parties  of  the  day  take  oflP  their  knapsacks  only ;  in  each  company, 
one  of  their  number  is  posted  over  the  stacks. 

During  the  halt,  the  patrols  and  sentinels  are  relieved  every  15  minutes. 

When  several  regiments  are  marching  together,  the  colonels,  at  the  end 
of  a  halt,  give  the  order  to  take  knapsacks,  &c.,  in  succession,  so  as  not  to 
disturb  the  men  prematurely,  but  give  them  more  time  to  rest. 

Fig.  188. 


Fig.  187. 


In  addition  to  the  main  halt,  short  halts,  of  about  15  minutes*  duration, 
are  made  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  march,  and  at  3  or  4  miles  after 
the  main  halt,  to  allow  the  men  to  put  themselves  to  rights  and  satisfy 
the  calls  of  nature.  During  these  halts  the  men  remain  in  the  road,  in 
the  order  of  march,  stack  arms,  and  take  off  their  knapsacks. 

It  is  a  general  rule  to  omit  no  opportunity  of  endeavoring  to  preserve 
the  strength  of  the  men,  by  always  taking  advantage  of  any  slight  chance 
of  relieving  them  of  their  load ;  therefore,  in  crossing  gi  river,  for  instance, 
while  the  leading  sections  are  crossing,  those  in  rear  should  stack  arms 
and  take  off  their  knapsacks. 

The  troops  at  the  tail  of  the  column  being  more  fatigued  than  those  at 
the  head,  the  regiments  and  battalions  should  alternate  in  their  positions 
in  the  column  during  long  marches.  This  rule  should  be  particularly 
observed  when  the  roads  are  bad. 


261 


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262 


N. 


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263 


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264 


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e»0     w"^     «Ncr>»«i  •«»'<«"« 


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265 


Camp  in  deployed  order  of 


Fi 


a.mm  miiiki 


WE- 

\ — 4-=,-a 


s-iiS^ 


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[For  scale  and  refei 


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266 


giment  with  three  battalions. 


1    UUMi 


^■»     e      e    i^^t     *^^^T^^ 


e^^^    a     e      e     t.     a      e*  fc  _e^    a    e      e    a     **     "^ &* »    g     a     e    _g_.a_    e        <* 


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see  figs.  189,  190.] 


267 


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Camp  of  a  regiment  of  fo\ 


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r.  192. 


268 


i* — — 


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3rp?rpr 


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figs.  189,  190.J 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY.  269 

Further  details  as  to  the  conduct  of  marches,  the  duties  of  billeters, 
&c.,  are  to  be  found  in  the  caValry  regulations. 

When  the  trflops  approach  their  quarters  for  the  night,  the  officer  com- 
manding the  billeters  goes  out  to  meet  them  near  the  quarters,  taking  all 
his  men  with  him,  except  one  from  each  company,  who  remain  at  the 
company  quarters  with  the  guidons.  . 

When  foot  artillery  is  marching  separately  from  the  infantry,  it  sends 
out  its  own  advanced  and  rear  guards. 

In  a  brigade  of  foot  artillery  these  guards  consist,  each,  .of  1  officer, 
1  drummer,  3  sergeants,  and  20  men,  at  200  paces  from  the  batteries. 

They  form  in  3  ranks,  and  detach  patrollers  as  a  battalion  of  in- 
fantry. 

A  single  battery  sends  out  an  advanced  and  rear  guard,  each,  of  1  ser- 
geant, 1  corporal,  and  6  men,  at  100  paces  from  the  battery;  they  detach 
patrollers  as  prescribed  for  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  of  a  company 
of  infantry. 

In  most  respects  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  march  of  horse  artillery 
apply  to  the  case  of  foot  artillery 

The  detachments  march  at  their  posts;  but  in  deep  snow  they  are 
allowed  to  follow  the  pieces. 

OP   ENCAMPMENTS. 

The  encampments  of  infantry  may  be  arranged  in  two  ways :  in  deep 
order,  i.e.  in  columns  of  attack ;  or  with  a  deployed  front. 

Figs.  189  to  192  show  the  order  of  encampment  for  regiments  of  3  and 
4  battalions,  in  both  ways. 

The  encampments  with  a  deployed  front  are  used  in  warm  climates, 
and  especially  in  cases  where  the  troops  are  to  remain  a  long  time  in  the 
same  place. 

The  allowance  of  tents  is  as  follows:  1  for  every  field  officer,  1  for 
every  2  company  officers,  1  for  every  15  sergeants  and  privates,  2  tents 
for  field  guard,  2  for  the  camp  guard,  1  for  the  quarter  guard. 

The  details  of  encampments  are  as  follows : — 

1.  The  tents  of  the  companies  of  each  battalion  are  placed  in  the  tac- 
tical order  of  battle. 

2.  In  the  deep  order,  the  tents  of  each  company  are  in  4  ranks ;  in 
the  deployed  order,  they  are  in  3  ranks. 

3.  A  square  of  7  paces  on  each  side  is  allowed  for  every  tent. 

4.  The  intervals  between  the  soldiers'  tents  are  4  paces. 

5.  The  camp-lines  are  3  lines  of  sods,  occupying  a  width  of  4  paces, 
placed  at  the  distance  of  5  paces  from  the  tents ;  in  the  deployed  order, 
they  are  only  in  front  of  the  camp ;  in  the  deep  order,  in  front  and  on 
the  flanks  of  each  battalion. 


270 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


6.  The  pyramids  of  arms,  (Fig.  193,)  1  for  each  battalion,  are  between 
the  lines  and  the  tents.  In  deep  order,  6 'pyramids  are  in  front  of  each 
battalion,  and  5  on  each  flank;  in  deployed  order,  there 'are  2  pyramids 
in  front  of  each  platoon.  If  the  pyramids  are  not  set  up,  the  arms  are 
stacked,  in  good  weather. 

Fig.  194. 


Fig.  193. 


.  ^<\i/^-^:\  ^  --.  v(.^<v;.-^\ 


7.  In  the  centre  of  each  battalion,  on  the  line  of  pyramids,  the  drums 
are  piled  on  a  stand,  and  the  colors  placed  in  a  rack  in  front  of  them. 
(Fig.  194.)  The  drummers  of  the  day  place  their  drums  on  a  separate 
stand,  on  the  left  of  the  colors. 

8.  In  the  deployed  camp  of  a  single  battalion,  or  in  the  2d  battalion 
of  regiments  of  3  battalions,  an  interval  of  20  paces  is  left  between  the 
platoons  of  the  color-company,  for  the  tents  of  the  camp  guard. 

9.  The  tents  of  the  company  officers  are  7  paces  in  rear  of  the  soldiers' 
tents.  ^ 

10.  Five  paces  farther  in  rear  are  the  tents  of  the  battalion  com- 
manders and  the  junior  field  officers;  the  battalion  commanders  in  rear 
of  the  centre  of  the  right  wing,  the  others  in  rear  of  the  left  wing  of 
their  respective  battalions. 

11.  The  tent  of  the  battalion  adjutant  is  on  the  left  of  that  of 
the  battalion  commander.  If  there  is  no  junior  field  officer,  the  tent 
of  the  adjutant  may  occupy  the  place  designated  for  that  of  the 
former. 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  271 

12.  The  tents  of  the  officers'  servants  are  4  paces  in  rear  of  those  last 
mentioned. 

13.  The  tent  of  the  colonel  is  behind  the  centre  of  the  regiment,  25 
paces  in  rear  of  those  of  the  officers'  servants.  The  regimental  adjutant 
on  his  left. 

14.  The  musicians'  tents  are  32  paces  behind  the  tent  of  the  colonel. 

15.  Seven  paces  in  rear  of  the  musicians  are  placed  the  tents  of  the 
commissioned  staff,  i.e.  the  paymaster,  quartermaster,  surgeons,  judge 
advocate,  and  chaplain ;  in  rear  of  these  are  their  servants,  the  clerks  of 
the  regimental  office,  &c. 

16.  In  rear  of  these  are  the  men  of  the  company  of  the  train;  their 
commander  is  in  front  of  them. 

The  wagons  are  placed  as  follows : 

1.  The  money-wagon  on  the  right  of  the  colonel's  tent. 

2.  The  cartridge-wagons  with  the  field  guard  ]  in  deployed  order  they 
are  with  the  field  guards  of  their  respective  battalions. 

3.  The  ambulances,  wagons  with  hospital  stores,  medicine,  and  tools, 
the  church-wagons,  travelling  forges,  and  other  government  wagons,  also 
the  artel  and  baggage  wagons  of  the  regimental  staff,  are  placed,  in  regi- 
ments of  3  battalions,  on  the  right  of  the  regimental  staff;  in  regiments 
of  4  battalions,  on  both  sides  of  it.  These  wagons  are  formed  in  2 
ranks :  in  the  front  rank  those  belonging  to  the  officers  and  men  of  the 
staff;  in  the  2d  rank  the  government  wagons. 

4.  The  wagons  belonging  to  the  battalion,  such  as :  provision-wagons, 
tent,  artel  and  officers'  wagons,  are  placed  in  rear  of  the  battalions,  in  2 
ranks;  in  the  front  rank,  the  provision  and  tent  wagons;  in  the  rear 
rank,  the  artel  and  officers'  wagons. 

5.  In  deployed  order  the  wagons  are  placed  as  in  deep  order,  except 
that  they  are  in  one  rank. 

6.  Behind  the  wagons,  not  nearer  than  30  paces,  are  the  kitchens, 
and  near  them  the  sod  tables  and  seats  for  the  men's  messinor. 

o 

7.  Forty  paces  in  rear  of  the  kitchens  are  the  sinks. 
The  quarter  guard  is  30  paces  behind  the  line  of  sinks. 
According  to  the  principles  laid  down  above,  in  deep  order,  the  camp 

of  a  battalion  occupies  a  front  of  95  paces ;  for  a  regiment  of  3  battalions, 
335  paces ;  for  a  regiment  of  4  battalions,  455  paces ;  and  the  depth  of 
such  a  camp  is  340  paces,  from  the  front  lines  to  the  sinks. 

In  a  deployed  camp,  a  battalion  occupies  a  front  of  184  paces ;  a  regi- 
ment of  3  battalions,  622  paces;  a  regiment  of  four  battalions,  811  paces: 
the  depth  of  such  a  camp  is  268  paces. 

(Fig.  195.)  In  the  camp  of  a  sapper  battalion,  the  engineer-wagons  are 
in  front  of  the  others. 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


Camp  of  a  hattalion  of  sappers. 


Camp  of  a  heavy  foot  hattery. 


Fig.  196. 


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(For  references,  see  f).  273.) 


TH^   RUSSIAN  ARMY 


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274  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

Fig.  197  shows  the  arrangement  of  a  park  of  pontons,  with  the  camp 
of  the  company  of  sappers  serving  with  it. 

Fig.  196  gives  the  details  of  the  camp  of  a  heavy  battery ;  that  of  a  light 
battery  differs  from  it  only  m  having  2  tents  less.  When  two  batteyies 
are  encamped  side  by  side,  an  interval  of  25  paces  is  left  for  the  camp 
guard. 

If  the  troops  are  in  huts,  instead  of  tents,  they  are  arranged  according 
to  the  rules  for  encampments,  as  shown  in  fig.  198.  The  battalions  are 
arranged  in  columns  of  attack,  each  platoon  having  a  separate  hut. 

Many  of  the  details  of  encampments,  such  as  with  regard  to  hospitals, 
&c.,  as  given  in  the  cavalry  regulations,  apply  to  the  infantry. 

Fig.  199  shows  the  arrangement  of  a  divisiorf  of  infantry,  with  its  artil- 
lery, in  a  camp  in  deep  order. 

Fig.  200  shows  the  arrangement  of  a  similar  camp  for  2  divisions;  the 
regiments  are  supposed  to  be  of  4  battalions,  the  artillery  brigades  of  4 
batteries  each. 

The  rules  and  dimensions  which  have  been  given  are  to  be  regarded 
as  standards,  from  which  it  is  permitted  to  depart  only  in  cases  of  abso- 
lute necessity;  circumstances  may  require  the  intervals  to  be  increased 
or  diminished ;  the  disposition  of  the  artillery  to  be  changed ;  the  front 
of  the  camp  to  be  on  a  broken  line,  &c.,  &c. 

To  superintend  the  daily  duty  in  camp,  the  following  details  are  made 
in  a  regiment : 

1.  A  regimental  officer  of  the  day,  who  is  one  of  the  commanders  of 
companies. 

2.  A  battalion  officer  of  the  day  for  each  battalion,  from  among  the 
lieutenants. 

3.  In  each  company,  1  sergeant  and  2  privates  of  the  day. 

4.  A  drummer  of  the  day  in  each  battalion. 

5.  Sergeants  of  the  tiay  in  charge  of  the  kitchens. 

In  an  isolated  battalion  a  similar  detail  is  made,  except  that  the  bat- 
talion officer  of  the  day  is  one  of  the  captains. 

In  an  isolated  brigade  there  is  a  brigade  officer  of  the  day;  in  every 
division  there  is  a  division  officer  of  the  day,  but  none  of  brigade. 

These  officers  are  from  the  number  of  battalion  commanders  and  junior 
field  officers. 

When  there  are  several  divisions  in  camp,  there  is  a  camp  officer  of 
the  day,  who  is  one  of  the  commanders  of  the  infantry  brigades  and  regi- 
ments, or  of  the  artillery  brigades. 

If  the  commander  approaches  the  camp,  the  privates  of  the  day  call 
out,  "  Parties  of  the  day  on  the  lines  !"  at  which  they  take  post  as  follows : 
the  regimental  officer  of  the  day  in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  regiment, 
15  paces  from  the  lines;  the  battalion  officers  of  the  day  in  front  of  the 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY 


275 


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/Huts  of  battalion  adjutants. 

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h  Huts  of  band. 


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k  Hut  of  regimental  adjutant. 

I   Kitchens, 

VI  Messing-huts. 

n  Wagons,  workshops,  storehouses,  &( 

o  Stables. 

p  Sinks. 


276 


THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


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278  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

colors,  8  paces  from  the  lines ;  the  sergeants  and  privates  of  the  day  at 
the  guidons  of  their  companies;  the  drummer  of  the  day  by  his  drum. 
(See  ^igs.  189  to  192.) 

OF  HELD,  CAMP,  AND  QUARTER  GUARDS. 

(Figs.  189  to  192.)  When  encamped,  infantry  post  field,  camp,  and 
quarter  guards.  The  field  guards  protect  the  front  of  the  camp  by  a 
chain  of  double  sentinels;  the  quarter  guards  supply  a  chain  of  single 
sentinels  in  rear  of  the  camp;  the  camp  guards  furnish  the  sentinels  for 
the  interior  of  the  camp. 

In  camps  in  deep  order  each  regiment  posts  a  field  guard;  in  deployed 
camps,  each  battalion;  each  regiment  always  posts  a  camp  and  quarter 
guard. 

Isolated  battalions  post  field,  camp,  and  quarter  guards. 

The  field  guards  are  placed  about  200  paces  in  front  of  the  camp ;  the 
quarter  guards  not  less  than  30  paces  behind  the  sinks. 

The  chains  of  sentinels  of  the  field  and  quarter  guards  are  posted  at 
from  75  to  100  paces  from  the  guards;  they  should  be  drawn  in  on  both 
flanks  of  the  encampment. 

The  sentinels'  posts  are  about  100  paces  apart. 

In  the  field  guard  the  sentinels  of  the  same  pair  are  about  100  paces 
apart. 

The  sentinels  of  the  field  and  quarter  guards  carry  their  pieces  at  a 
shoulder. 

In  the  field  chain  the  grenadiers,  carbineers,  and  riflemen,  do  not  stand 
in  the  same  pair  with  men  of  the  other  companies. 

The  camp  guard  is  posted,  in  a  separate  battalion,  in  the  interval  be- 
tween the  two  wings;  in  regiments  having  two  or  four  battalions,  in  the 
central  interval  of  the  regiment;  in  regiments  of  three  battalions,  in  the 
interval  between  the  wings  of  the  centre  battalion. 

By  the  camp  guard  sentinels  are  posted  over  the  colors,  arms,  and  at 
the  tents  of  the  colonels  and  battalion  commanders.  The  sentinels  over 
the  colors,  and  at  the  tents  of  the  battalion  commanders,  stand  at  an 
order;  those  over  the  arms  and  at  the  colonel's  tent,  at  a  shoulder. 

Men  from  the  elite  companies  are  posted  over  the  colors. 

In  camp  the  arms  of  all  the  guards  are  stacked. 

All  the  sentinels  stand  in  front  of  the  block  on  which  their  knapsacks 
are  placed.  If  there  is  no  block,  the  knapsack  is  laid  on  the  ground,  one 
pace  in  rear  of  the  sentinel.  In  all  cases  the  knapsack-flap  is  upwards, 
the  top  towards  the  sentinel,  and  the  straps  rolled  on  top.  In  each  regi- 
ment, and  also  in  each  separate  battalion,  the  field  guard  is  senior  to  the 
others,  which  are  subordinate  to  it  in  all  things.  In  regiments  encamped 
with  deployed  front,  the  difierent  field  guards  are  senior  by  turns. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  279 

If  tbere  is  more  than  one  regiment  in  camp,  then  one  of  the  field 
guards  is  designated  in  turn  as  senior,  and  is  called  the  "  senior  redant." 

The  field  guards  of  separate  battalions  are  never  detailed  as  senior 
redant. 

In  encampments  the  f6llowiiig  rules  are  observed  with  regard  to  the 
detail  of  men  for  guard  duty : 

1.  In  a  regiment  the  Aien  are  detailed  from  all  the  battalions;  and  in 
the  battalions,  from  all  the  companies. 

2.  Each  guard  consists  of  men  of  the  same  battalion,  except  in  the 
camp  guards  of  4-battalion  regiments,  which  are  from  two  of  the  bat- 
talions. 

3.  In  deployed  camps  each  battalion  supplies  its  own  field  guard. 

4.  Field  and  camp  guards  are  commanded  by  officers  ]  quarter  guards, 
by  sergeants.  The  senior  officers  on  guard  are  with  the  field  guards; 
with  the  senior  rodant  there  are  two  officers. 

5.  There  is  a  drummer  with  every  field  and  camp  guard;  if  there  are 
any  riflemen  on  guard,  then  a  horn-player  is  detailed ;  when  any  of  the 
grenadiers  or  carbineers  are  on  guard,  a  fifer  is  also  detailed.  At  the 
senior  redant  there  are  one  drummer,  one  fifer,  and  one  horn-player ;  if 
any  riflemen  are  present,  there  are  two  horn-players. 

At  the  guards  the  drums  are  laid  on  the  ground ;  the  horns  on  the 
left  side  of  the  knapsack-block  of  the  sentinel  at  the  guard-tent.  If  both 
.drummei-s  and  horn-players  are  present,  the  horns  are  laid  on  the  drums. 

The  regulations  give  minutely  the  strength  of  the  various  guards  in 
all  cases;  in  this  extract  a  few  examples  will  be  given. 

GUARDS   IN   A   DEEP   CAMP   OF   A   SINGLE   BATTALION. 

(a.)  The  field  guard  :  1  officer,  2  sergeants,  1  musician,  30  privates. 
The  following  sentinels  are  posted : 

At  the  guard-tent 1 

In  the  chain,  4  pairs  of  sentinels 8 

9  men  in  each  relief. 

For  3  reliefs 27 

Corporals  for  posting  reliefs ; 2 

Private  as  orderly 1 

Total 30 

One  of  the  sergeants  makes  the. necessary  reports. 
(h.)  The  camp  guard :  1  officer,  2  sergeants,  1  musician,  24  privates. 
This  guard  posts  the  following  sentinels : 

17 


280  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

At  the  guard-tents 1 

Over  the  color 1 

Over  the  arms 4 

Over  the  tent  of  battalion  commander 1 


7  men  in  each  relief. 

For  3  reliefs ..^.....  21 

Corporals  to  relieve  sentinels 2 

Private^  as  orderly.. 1 

Total 24 

For  a  sapper  battalion,  3  extra  men  may  be  detailed  to  furnish  a  senti- 
nel over  the  engineer-wagons. 

(c.)  The  quarter  guard  :  1  sergeant,  20  privates. 
The  following  sentinels  are  posted ; 

At  the  guard-tent 1 

In  the  chain,  4  posts 4 


5  men  in  each  relief. 


For  3  reliefs 15 

Corporal  to  post  sentinels 1 

Corporal  to  make  reports 1 

Sentinels  over  prisoners 3 

Total 20 


GUARDS  IN  A  DEPLOYED  CAMP  OF  A  REGIMENT  HAVING  FOUR  BAT- 
TALIONS. 

(a.)  The  field  guard  in  each  battalion :  1  officer,  3  sergeants,  1  musi- 
cian, 22  privates. 

Each  field  guard  posts  the  following  sentinels  : 

At  the  guard-tents 1 

In  the  chain,  3  pairs  of  sentinels *..,...     6 


7  men  in  each  relief. 


For  3  reliefs 21 

Private,  as  orderly 1 

Total 22 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY.  ^  281 

(b.)  The  camp  guard :  1  officer,  2  sergeants,  1  musician,  59  privates. 
This  guard  posts  the  following  sentinels : 

At  the  guard-tents 1 

Over  the  colors 4 

Over  the  arms 8 

Over  the  tents  of  commanders 5 

18  men  in  each  relief. 

For  3  i:eliefs 54 

Corporals  for  posting  reliefs 4 

Private,  as  orderly 1 

Total 59 

(c.)  Quarter  guard  :  2  sergeants,  89  privates. 
It  posts  the  following  sentinels  : 

At  the  guard-tents 1 

In  the  chain,  10  posts 10 


11  men  in  each  relief 


For  3  reliefs , 33 

Corporals  to  post  reliefs 2 

Corporal  to  make  reports 1 

Over  the  prisoners 3 

Total 39 


The  corporals  are  not  regarded  as  non-commissioned  officers;  and,  in 
addition  to  those  mentioned  above,  others  are  posted  as  sentinels  at  the 
tents  of  commanders,  &c. 

In  camp,  prisoners  are  confined — officers  at  the  camp  guard,  sergeants 
and  privates  at  the  quarter  guard.  There  is  always  a  sentinel,  at  an 
order,  posted  over  the  tent  in  which  an  officer  or  soldier  is  confined.  The 
commander-in-chief  may  replace  the  camp  and  quarter  guards  by  ser- 
geants' pickets. 

The  picket  which  replaces  the  camp  guard  will  be  of  the  following 
strength : 

In  a  separate  battalion,  1  sergeant  and  10  men. 

In  a  regiment  of  four  battalions,  1  sergeant  and  19  men. 

If  there  are  prisoners  under  the  charge  of  the  picket,  3  men  are  added 
to  the  numbers  given  above. 


282  THE  ARMIES. OF   EUROPE. 

The  strength  of  the  picket  which  replaces  the  quarter  guard  must 

depend  upon  circumstances  and  the  number  of  prisoners  under  its  charge. 

In  addition  to  the  guards  already  mentioned,  special  guards  are  detailed 

for  those  villages  near  the  camp  which  are  occupied  as  depots,  quarters 

for  staff  ofl&cers,  &c. 

The  guards  detailed  by  foot  artillery  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those 
prescribed  for  horse  artillery  in  the  cavalry  regulations. 

The  guard  detailed  by  a  company  of  sappers  serving  with  a  ponton- 
train  is  of  1  sergeant  and  20  men,  as  follows : 

At  the  guard-tent 1 

Over  the  arms 2 

Over  the  ponton-park 2 

At  the  commander's  tent 1 

6  men  in  each  relief. 

For  three  reliefs •..  18 

Corporal  to  post  sentinels 1 

Corporal  to  make  reports 1 

Total ; 20 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  sentinels  are  relieved  every  two 
hours. 

The  general  rules  for  the  performance  of  duty  in  camp,  patrols,  rounds, 
care  of  arms,  reports,  alarms,  precautions  against  fires,  &c.,  &c.,  as  given 
in  the  cavalry  regulations,  apply  to  the  case  of  infantry.  • 

BIVOUACS. 

Fig.  201.  Troops  are  said  to  bivouac  when  they  pass  the  night 

in  the  open  air,  or  under  shelters  hastily  constructed 
of  branches,  brush,  straw,  &c. 
^fWlW  When  infantry  are  to  bivouac,  (fig.  198,)  they  are 

formed  on  the  ground  they  are  to  occupy  in  columns 
of  attack,  but  the  distances  between  the  platoons  must 
not  be  less  than  20  paces,  and  the  men  open  out  well  in 
ranks;  they  then  stack  arms  where  they  stand,  hang 
their  belts  and  helmets  on  the  stacks,  (fig.  201,)  and 
lay  the  knapsacks  on  the  ground  behind  the  stacks. 

In  this  manner  the  bivouac  of  a  battalion  occupies 
a  front  of  60  paces  and  a  depth  of  80. 
(iJmi^00^''%\^'^        In  bivouac  the  colors  remain  at  their  posts, — i.e 
between  the  stacks  of  the  4th  and  5th  platoons, — lean- 
ing against  the  front  of  the  pile  of  drums. 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY. 


283 


»f 


WWW 


1  o  s; 

g      C      O 

§   §   3. 


?^  ITS 

-   I 


^   B 


2   3    « 

"*     ^  2 

B    5 


um 


f|IT 


^    •-     :•■    E» 


I 

I- 


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<5> 

CO 


284 


THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


Bivouac  of  a  regiment  of  4  hattalions. 
Pig.  203. 


8      e 


% 


t     h 


ik       « 


6r:^^r-^"i„  - 


f   — 


J  I-- 


-^'M' 


i      i  ^  I 


m    i I:-  s 


.    8 


1     ii   J 


, I !•-     ,R 


..  I 


\ti/\      tl\ 


r 


e 


e  ^^smm. 


^wmm 


(For  references,  see  p.  283.) 


THE    RUSSIAN   ARMY.  285 

The  officers,  band,  and  field  music,  are  placed  in  rear  of  the  battalions. 

Fig.  202  shows  the  arrangement  of  a  bivouac  which  is  to  be  occupied  for 
some  time,  and  when  .the  men  are  permitted  to  erect  shelters. 

In  this  case,  as  soon  as  the  stacks  are  formed  and  the  accoutrements 
hung  upon  them,  the  half  battalions  face  outwards,  march  out  clear  of 
the  stacks,  and  then  face  again  to  the  front. 

This  manner  of  arranging  the  bivouac  offers  the  advantage  of  giving 
the  men  more  room,  but  presents  the  inconvenience  of  requiring  more 
ground,  for  each  battalion  occupies  a  front  of  120  paces ;  this  method  can 
therefore  be  employed  only  when  the  ground  permits  a  great  development. 
In  bivouac,  the  shelters  should  be  arranged  with  a  certain  regularity, 
leaving  free  passages  between  them. 

Although,  in  figs.  202,  203,  particular  dimensions  are  given  for  the 
front  and  depth  of  the  bivouacs  of  battalions  and  the  intervals  between 
them,  yet,  whenever  circumstances  permit,  these  dimensions  may  be 
increased,  so  as  to  give  the  men  more  room ;  but  these  dimensions  should 
never  be  decreased. 

Regiments  of  3  battalions  bivouac  in  one  line ;  those  of  4  battalions,  in 
two  lines,  140  paces  apart,  counting  between  the  heads  of  the  battalions. 

Batteries  are  placed  in  bivouac  either  deployed  or  in  column,  as  shown 
in  figs.  204,  205. 

In  the  front  line,  artillery  bivouacs  120  paces  in  front  of  the  infantry, 
and  is  deployed ;  in  the  rear  line  and  reserves,  it  may  be  placed  behind 
the  infantry,  in  columns  by  half  batteries. 

The  front  of  the  bivouac  of  a  deployed  battery  is  120  paces ;  when  in 
column,  by  half  batteries,  it  is  60  paces. 

An  interval  of  40  paces  is  left  between  the  bivouacs  of  batteries  and 
the  nearest  battalions. 

"When  in  rear  of  the  infantry,  artillery  is  not  placed  less  than  100  paces 
from  it,  counting  from  the  rear  of  the  infantry  to  the  line  of  guns. 

Batteries  in  .bivouac  in  front  of  infantry,  even  if  in  reserve,  should 
always  be  unlimbered;  those  in  rear  of  the  infantry  should  always  be 
limbered  up. 

Figs.  206  to  211  give  examples  of  the  arrangement  of  the  bivouacs  of 
brigades  and  divisions,  both  in  the  line  of  battle  and  in  reserve. 

The  examples  of  bivouacs  given  should  be  regarded  only  as  guides; 
for  the  ground,  and  other  circumstances,  may  often  make  it  necessary  to 
depart  from  them,  both  in  the  distribution  of  the  troops  and  with  regard 
to  the  intervals  between  them. 

The  troops  of  the  advanced  guard,  when  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  always 
bivouac  in  the  order  of  battle ;  therefore  the  arrangements  of  their 
bivouac  must  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  cannot  be  de- 
termined by  any  arbitrary  rules. 


286 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


mFT.BIVOUAd 


Bivouac  of  a  "battery  deployed. 
Fig.  201. 


OH — 4 — '^^ 


^.-~f. — ^► — > — *ia 
Z 


in® 

il 


if«-     '^i2j!Il!!££f£ 


171  #  It 


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A^ 


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■yo  .   .   .   .  31 


■    •    -T 


Paces. 


(For  references,  see  p.  287.) 


TH.E   RUSSIAN    ARMY.  287 


Bivouac  of  a  battery  in  column. 

Fig.  205.  a  Line  of  pieces. 

'tif—'* « — -*•«  I  Line  of  limbers. 

t  ^ — ^ J. — .  J, 

^ ^ ^ I  c  Line  of  caissons. 

p  ^ ^ ^ I  d  Line  of  artillery-wagons. 

1      „       „       i  c  Bivouac  of  soldiers. 

le  I ^ ^^ I  ^  /  Bivouac  of  battery  ofl&cers. 

I  j. — -J. ^ ^  J  ^  Bivouac  of  2d  in  command. 

H^     4t     ^      ^  ^  Bivouac  of  commander  of  the  battery. 

^  ^     ^      ;jjj     j|j  ^  ^  Drummers  and  mechanics. 

\^~-^ — ^ — ^  ^  Q^^^  g^^j.^^ 

<?  ^     -i     "i-— "i  ,i  ^   Baggage-wagfins. 

j|,,_„.j^ — ^ — ^  j^  Harness. 

i  j  t  n  Picket-ropes, 

gy"^  a^A^J^  o  Forage-stacks. 

IB    "     Bli  Officer  of  the  day. 

1^    •    BIB  •• Sergeant  and  privates  of  the  day. 

/•U"*a      ^"mJ^-  * Sentmel^ 

LZZj:!^^H  ^ Bivouac-fires. 

^  BMm  (For  scale,  see  p.  286.) 

®0 


288 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


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2  2  "  B,  ^-  « 

g  d  a  i*  «  ^ 

W  pq  ^  S  O?  o 

<J  W  U  iS  'O  b- 


THE   BUSSIAN   ARMY. 


289 


o  a   Q  teJ  > 

o  »^  ^  w  w 

sr  "^  2  c   s 


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i  ^^ 

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290 


THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 


Bivouac  of  a  division  of  regiments  of  3  hattaliom. 


Fig.  209. 


4« U *t- 


"•l± 


-T  t 1 


\eo\ 


T\ 


3II 


1^       --/.i 


(For  scale,  see  p.  291.) 


,/ 


THE^  RUSSIAN   ARMY. 


291 


Bivouac  of  a  division  of 
S -battalion  regiments. 

Pig.  210. 


Bivouac  of  a  division  of 
4:-battalion  regiments. 


r 


III' 


■4       '8< 


i  i 


Kf— i  t— f  w 


,»«>•: 


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Fig.  211. 

4A »*- **.. 


tyyu   \ 


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/ft\ 

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«■&-        i.        !        -0tt 


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■  III 

f— t   f — f    t— f    t \ 


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7  ^ 
i   I 


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I 


=»  Paces. 


292  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

If  tlie  troops  are  to  pass  the  night  in  readiness  for  action,  they  are 
placed  in  bivouac  a  little  in  rear  of  the  position  for  battle ;  the  diflferent 
parts  may  also  be  closed  a  little  nearer  together,  so  as  to  hold  them  better 
in  hand. 

In  bivouac,  the  cartridge-wagons  of  the  advanced  guard  and  lines  of 
battle  are  placed  with  the  quarter  guards,  instead  of  with  the  field  guards ; 
in  this  case,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  kitchen  and  other  fires  at  a  safe 
distance. 

The  rest  of  the  wagons  are  arranged  as  prescribed  in  the  cavalry  regu- 
lations. 

In  bivouac,  guards  are  posted  as  in  encampments,  observing  what  follows : 

1.  In  divisions  arranged  in  two  lines,  (figs.  208,  209,)  the  regiments 
of  the  1st  line  post  field  guards,  those  of  the  2d  line  post  quarter  guards; 
in  addition,  there  may  be,  if  necessary,  sergeants'  guards  on  the  flanks, 
to  connect  the  chains  of  the  field  and  quarter  guards. 

2.  In  divisions  posted  in  reserve,  (figs.  210,  211,)  the  4th  regiment 
posts  field  guards,  the  1st  regiment  posts  quarter  guards,  the  2d  and  3d 
post  field  guards  on  the  flanks. 

3.  Camp  guards  are  10  paces  in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  troops  post- 
ing them. 

4.  In  regiments  of  4  battalions,  arranged  in  2  lines,  the  camp  guard  is 
posted  opposite  the  interval  between  the  battalions  of  the  1st  line;  if 
there  is  a  battery  in  this  interval,  the  guard  is  posted  on  its  right. 

5.  The  sentinels  posted  over  the  arms,  at  the  angles  of  the  battalions, 
(figs.  202, 203,)  are  arranged  as  in  encampments,  with  the  difference,  that, 
for  a  regiment  of  4  battalions,  in  two  lines,  (fig.  203,)  two  posts  are 
.necessary  for  the  exterior  angles  of  the  2d  and  3d  battalions. 

6.  In  bivouac,  there  is  a  sentinel  at  the  hut  of  the  battalion  commander. 
A  guard  may  be  posted  at  the  quarters  of  detached  commanders. 

In  all  other  respects  the  rules  for  cavalry  bivouacs  apply  to  those  of 
infantry. 

ARMS,  ACCOUTREMENTS,  ETC.,  OF    THE    INFANTRY. 

The  mass  of  the  infantry  are  armed  simply  with  the  musket  and  bayonet; 
all  sergeants,  some  of  the  regiments  of  the  guard,  and  the  ^lite  companies 
of  all  regiments,  have  a  short  sabre. 

The  rifle  battalion  have  a  rifle,  with  sword  bayonet. 

In  the  old  pattern  of  belts,  still  in  general  use,  there  were  two  thin, 
broad  shoulder-belts, — one  for  the  cartridge-box,  the  other  for  the  bayonet 
and  sword  scabbards;  the  cap-pouch  on  the  front  of  the  cartridge-box 
belt ;  no  waist-belt. 

In  the  new  pattern,  there  is  a  single  shoulder-belt  for  the  cartridge-box, 
and  a  waist-belt,  to  which  the  bayonet  and  sword  scabbards  are  attached; 
the  cap-pouch  is  on  the  end  of  the  cartridge-box. 


THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY. 


293 


The  cartridge-box  contains  60  rounds. 

The  knapsack  is  of  hide,  with  the  hair  outside ;  it  has  two  belts,  cross- 
ing on  the  breast,  and  attached  to  the  knapsack  by  swivels. 

The    canteen  is  a  tin         Fig.  213. 
bottle,  of  the  shape  and  sj^" 

dimensions  given  in  fig.  ITTIM 


Fig.  212. 


"ffjr 


K5 


213;  it  has  a  tin  cover 
which  serves  as  a  cup ;  it 
is  carried  strapped  to  the 
back  of  the  knapsack,  as 
shown  in  fig.  212. 

The  uniform  coat,  or 
overcoat,  is  carried,  in  a 
water-proof  cylinder,  on  top  of  the  knap- 
sack; the  forage  cap  in  a  linen  pocket 
on  the  front  of  the  knapsack. 

In  the  knapsack  are  carried :  2  shirts, 
1  pair  drawers,  2  extra  pieces  of  linen  for 
wrapping  the  feet,  leather  for  1  pair  of 
-boots,  3  brushes,  1  pair  of  summer  or 
winter  pants,  and  4  days'  bread  or  biscuit. 
There  is  a  little  pocket  in  the  knapsack 
for  a  small  rectangular  tin  box,  containing  spare  percussion-caps. 

The  wiper,  screw-driver,  and  ball-screw  are  carried  in  the  cartridge- 
box. 

In  the  cartridge- wagons,  4  to  each  battalion',  there  are  carried  40 
rounds  extra  for  each  man. 

The  oflficers  have  a  light  sabre,  with  a  leather  scabbard. 
The  field  music  have  drums  and  horns ;  the  elite  companies  have  fifes. 
The  drums  are  of  brass,  18"  in  diameter,  12"  deep. 

The  transportation  usually  allowed  is  as  follows :  1  small  wagon  for  the 
officers  of  each  company ;  2  for  the  soldiers'  tents ;  2  for  6  days'  bread. 
Cattle  are  driven  on  the  hoof. 

The  old  troops  are  seldom  drilled,  and  are  annoyed  as  little  as  possible; 
target-firing  is  much  practised. 

The  ordinary  length  of  march  is  from  13  to  17  miles  a  day;  it  is  usual 
to  halt  one  day  out  of  every  three  or  four. 


Sergeant  of  billeters 


THE    MILITIA. 


The  organization  of  the  militia  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
recent  war.  They  were,  in  fact,  battalions  of  regular  troops,  raised  foi 
the  period  of  the  war,  and  with  certain  peculiarities  of  organization  and 
equipment  to  distinguish  them  from  the   standing  army.     They   were 


294  THE    ARMIES  OF    EUROPE. 

organized  in  battalions,  of  a  composition  similar  to  those  of  the  old  army, 
but  were  not  necessarily  formed  into  regiments. 

The  men  were  mostly  serfs  and  crown  peasants;  the  sergeants  generally 
from  the  old  army;  the  officers  had  for  the  most  part  served  in  the  old 
army,  and  were  principally  selected  from  among  the  number  of  those  who 
had  resigned  their  commissions  or  had  been  granted  unlimited  furloughs. 

The  old  troops  were  much  employed  as  drill-masters  for  the  militia. 

UNIFORM. 

The  dress  of  the  militia  was  eminently  national,  having  little  or  nothing 
in  common  with  the  usual  uniforms  of  Europe. 

The  coat,  a  Russian  caftan,  or  long,  loose,  double-breasted  frock-coat, 
with  no  buttons  visible. 

The  pants  always  tucked  in  the  boot-tops. 

The  cap,  not  unlike  the  forage  cap  in  use  in  the  United  States  army 
during  the  Mexican  War,  except  that  the  top  was  somewhat  higher  and 
stiffer,  and  the  visor  larger ;  the  only  ornament  upon  the  cap  a  brazen 
Greek  cross. 

The  coat,  pants,  and  cap  always  of  the  same  color;  which  was  generally 
a  dark  shade  of  brownish  gray,  sometimes  almost  black. 

The  facings  usually  of  some  very  dark  color. 

Instead  of  overcoats^  they  had  blankets. 

The  men  were  not  required  to  crop  the  hair,  nor  to  shave  the  beard ; 
both  being  worn  long  and  full  in  the  Russian  style. 

The  uniform  of  the  officers  was  similar  to  that  of  the  men. 

ARMS   AND   EQUIPMENT. 

On  account  of  the  deficiency  in  the  number  of  percussion  muskets, 
many  of  the  battalions  were  armed  with  the  flint-lock  muskets. 

The  only  belt  was  a  black  leather  waist-belt,  fastening  by  a  buckle  in 
front.  To  this  were  attached :  a  cartridge-box  of  black  leather,  without 
a  frame;  the  bayonet-scabbard;  and  a  leather  case,  containing  a  small 
hand-axe. 

Knapsack  of  black  leather,  and  without  frame;  it  was  secured  by 
means  of  belts  and  swivels,  as  described  for  the  knapsack  of  the  old  army. 

Considering  the  very  short  time  these  troops  had  been  in  service,  their 
appearance  and  drill  were  very  creditable,  and  they  would,  no  doubt,  have 
proved  to  be  very  efficient  troops. 

There  were  large  numbers  of  them  at  St.  Petersburg  and  on  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic. 


PRU>SSIAN   CAVALRY.  295 


PEUSSIAN  CAVALRY. 


ORGANIZATION. 


The  war  establisliment  of  tte  Prussian  cavalry  consists  of  the  standing 
army,  the  landwehr  of  the  first  levy,  that  of  the  second  levy,  the  depot 
squadrons,  and  the  landsturm. 

All  able-bodied  men,  whatever  their  rank  in  life,  are  required  to  serve 
5  years  in  the  standing  army,  from  their  20th  to  their  25th  year.  Of 
these  6  years,  the  first  3  are  j)assed  with  their  regiments ;  during  the  last 
2  they  are  permitted  to  return  to  their, homes  and  compose  the  reserve  of 
the  standing  army,  being  liable  to  be  called  to  join  their  regiments  at  any 
moment,  in  the  event  of  a  war  or  other  exigency. 

They  then  pass  into  the  landwehr  of  the  1st  levy  for  7  years ;  then,  for 
7  more,  into  the  landwehr  of  the  2d  levy ;  after  which,  they  belong  to  the 
landsturm. 

The  standing  army  performs  garrison  duty  in  time  of  peace.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  regiments  are  stationed  in  the  districts  where  they  are 
recruited,  unless  there  are  special  political  reasons  to  the  contrary. 

The  landwehr  of  the  1st  levy  is  at  once  called  out,  upon  the  commence- 
ment of  a  war,  to  reinforce  the  standing  army  and  co-operate  with  it ;  its 
organization  and  composition  are  identical  with  those  of  the  latter,  there 
being  a  regiment  of  landwehr  cavalry  to  correspond  to  every  one  of  the 
cavalry  of  the  line,  and  2  landwehr  regiments  of  the  guard.  In  war  they 
are  usually  brigaded  together  j  thus  the  2d  hussars  of  the  line  and  the 
2d  hussars  of  the  landwehr  belong  to  the  same  brigade. 

In  peace,  this  levy  is  called  out  for  drills  and  manoeuvres  2  weeks  in 
each  year ;  at  other  times  merely  a  skeleton,  consisting  of  1  captain  of  the 
line,  2  non-commissioned  officers,  and  2  men,  is  kept  at  the  depot  maga- 
zine of  each  landwehr  regiment,  the  complete  clothing,  armament,  and 
equipment  of  the  regiment  being  kept  in  these  magazines. 

The  landwehr  of  the  2d  levy  is  not  quite  so  numerous  as  that  of  the 
1st.  It  is  called  out  only  in  time  of  war,  and  is  then  employed  in  service 
in  the  interior,  or,  if  necessary,  to  reinforce  the  active  army. 

The  landsturm  has  no  regular  organization ;  it  is  called  out  only  to  repel 

18 


296  THE    ARMIES    OF  EUROPE. 

invasion,  and  consists  of  all  men  less  than  50  years  old  not  in  the  army 
or  landwehr. 

The  depot  squadrons  are  organized  only  in  time  of  war.  They  consist 
of  supernumeraries  from  the  reserve,  men  drafted  from  the  landwehr, 
and  recruits  who  are  to  be  drilled  6  months  before  joining  their  regiments. 

Every  regiment  of  the  cavalry  of  the  standing  army  has  one  depot 
squadron  in  war;  those  of  the  guard  are  of  the  same  strength  as  the 
active  squadrons;  those  of  the  line  are  200  strong,  since  they  serve  as 
depots  for  the  corresponding  regiments  of  landwehr  of  the  first  levy  as 
well  as  for  those  of  the  line.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  men  and 
horses  belong  to  the  line  regiment;  the  remaining  75  are  for  the  landwehr. 

The  war  strength  of  these  diff"erent  kinds  of  cavalry  amounts  to  440 
.squadrons, — 2,400  officers  and  about  65,000  men  and  horses;  this  is 
exclusive  of  the  landsturm. 

The  cavalry  of  the  standing  army  consists  of  38  regiments,  of  which 
6  belong  to  the  guards,  32  to  the  line. 

The  guard  regiments  are ;  2  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  1  of  dragoons,  2 
of  lancers,  and  1  of  hussars. 

The  line  regiments  are :  8  of  cuirassiers,  4  of  dragoons,  8  of  lancers, 
and  12  of  hussars. 

Each  regiment  consists  of  4  active  squadrons. 

Each  squadron  of  the  line  regiments  is  composed  of : 

1  captain. 

1  first  lieutenant. 

3  second  lieutenants. 

1  orderly  sergeant. 

1  ensign,  a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  line  of  promotion. 

1  quartermaster,  a  sergeant. 

12  sergeants. 

3  trumpeters. 

127  privates,  among  whom  are  20  corporals  and  re-enlisted  soldiers : — 
145  men  and  horses,  exclusive  of  officers. 

The  regimental  staff  consists  of  1  colonel,  1  junior  field  officer,  1  adju- 
tant, (a  second  lieutenant,)  2  supernumerary  captains,  1  paymaster,  1 
surgeon,  from  2  to  3  assistant  surgeons,  1  chief  trumpeter,  1  regi- 
mental clerk,  4  veterinaries  with  the  rank  of  orderly  sergeant.  The  super- 
numerary captains  are  for  the  purpose  of  commanding  the  skeleton  of  the 
corresponding  landwehr  regiment  and  the  depot  squadron,  as  well  as  for 
other  detached  service. 

The  junior  field  officer  commands  the  corresponding  landwehr  regiment, 
the  captains  and  adjutant  of  which  are  also  taken  from  the  line.  The 
squadrons  of  the  guard  regiments  are  stronger  by  5  privates  than  those 
of  the  line. 


PRUSSIAN   CAVALRY.  297 


TACTICS  AND  INSTRUCTION. 

The  riding  drill  is  a  separate  work  from  the  tactics  proper;  it  is  so  very 
similar  to  the  Austrian  that  it  need  not  be  explained  in  this  report. 

The  instruction  on  foot  is  embraced  in  the  first  36  pages  of  the  tactics, 
and  includes  the  drill  of  the  recruit,  the  movements  of  the  squadron  and 
regiment,  and  the  formations  for  parade,  review,  &c. 

The  squadron  is  the  unit  of  tactics,  as  well  as  of  interior  service. 
When  mounted,  it  is  formed  in  two  ranks,  1  pace  apart,  the  rear-rank 
covering  their  front-rank  men,  and  is  divided  into  4  platoons,  numbered 
from  right  to  left. 

In  each  platoon  the  men  call  off  by  twos  for  mounting  and  dismounting; 
by  threes  for  manoeuvring. 

The  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  &c.,  are  posted  as  follows : 

The  captain,  30  paces  in  front  of  the  centre;  the  1st  lieutenant  com- 
mands the  3d  platoon,  and  is  2  paces  in  front  of  its  centre;  the  2d  lieu- 
tenant commands  the  4th  platoon ;  the  3d  lieutenant  is  a  file-closer,  in  rear 
of  the  centre;  the  4th  lieutenant  commands  the  1st  platoon;  the  5th  lieu- 
tenant commands  the  2d  platoon. 

The  sketch  on  page  298  represents  a  squadron  deployed. 

If  there  is  no  5th  lieutenant,  the  2d  platoon  is  commanded  by  the 
ensign,  or  a  suitable  sergeant. 

If  there  are  but  2  lieutenants  present,  they  command  the  flank  platoons. 

The  captain  may  change  the  arrangement  of  the  officers,  as  given 
above,  if  he  thinks  proper. 

The  sketch  gives  the  positions  of  the  non-commissioned  officers  and 
trumpeters. 

There  must  be  one  file-closer  for  each  platoon ;  if  there  is  a  deficiency 
in  the  number  of  sergeants,  corporals  are  detailed  to  supply  their  places. 

To  dismount^  the  chiefs  and  left  guides  of  platoons,  and  Nos.  1  of  the 
front  rank,  ride  forward  twice  a  horse's  length,  the  chiefe  of  platoons  then 
face  towards  their  men  by  making  a  right  about ;  the  right  guides,  Nos. 
2  of  the  front  rank,  and  Nos.  1  of  the  rear  rank,  move  forward  a  horse's 
length;  Nos.  2  of  the  rear  rank  and  the  file-closers  stand  fast;  the 
trumpeters  act  as  prescribed  for  the  rear  rank. 

Having  dismounted,  Nos.  2  of  each  rank  and  the  right  guides  close  up 
alongside  of  the  Nos.  1  of  their  own  rank ;  the* file-closers  close  up  on  the 
rear  rank ;  the  ranks  are  thus  4  paces  apart. 

To  mount,  the  ranks  are  formed  4  paces  apart,  and  the  Nos.  1  of  each 
rank,  with  the  left  guides,  move  forward  a  horse's  length. 

Having  mounted,  the  ranks  are  closed  on  the  Nos.  1  of  the  front  rank. 

The  movements  of  the  squadron  are  by  threes, — never  by  fours. 


298 


THE   ARMIES   OF    EUROPE. 
Exjplanation  of  signs. 
T — —  Captain. 

I Commander  of  platoon. 

File-closer  officer. 

Right  guide  of  platoon. 


t 


-•  Left  guide  of  platoon. 

—  File-closer  non-commissioned  officer. 

—  Orderly  sergeant. 

—  Trumpeter. 


*  ?  ?  ? 

2  ff 


I       I 


I 


f    f 


I 


t 


Squadron  deployed. 


PRUSSIAN   CAVALRY. 


The  annexed  sketch  shows  the  formation  of  a  squadron  gaining  ground 
to  the  right  after  having  wheeled  to  the  right  by  threes 
in  each  rank. 

The  squadron  may  be  re-formed  into  line  either  by 
wheeling  to  the  left  by  threes,  or  by  forming  to  the  front 
into  line ;  in  the  latter  case  the  front-rank  men  of  the 
leading  set  of  threes  move  forward  two  horses'  lengths 
and  halt,  their  rear-rank  men  take  their  places  behind 
them,  and  the  other  sets  of  threes  gain  their  places  by 
obli^Juing  to  the  left. 

Platoons  may  be  formed  in  the  same  manner. 

The  annexed  sketch  will  serve  to  explain  the  pecuHarity 
,  in  the  column  by  threes,  and  the  column  by  files  ;  in  the 
column  by  threes  the  rear-rank  men,  instead  of  cover- 
ing their  front-rank  men,  ride  behind  the  intervals,  as 
shown  in  the  sketch ;  in  the  column  by  files,  in  which 
each  rear-rank  man  is  alongside  of  his  front-rank  man, 
the  same  thing  is  observed  by  the  successive  files. 

In  column  by  platoons,  the  non-commissioned  file- 
closers  place  themselves  on  the  flanks  of  the  rear 
rank ;  the  officer  acting  as  file-closer  is  on  the  flank  of 
the  column  opposite  the  guides,  and  opposite  the  middle 
of  the  colujnn. 

The  half  column  is  formed  from  line  by  causing  all 
the  platoons  to  make,  simultaneously,  a  quarter  wheel 
to  the  right,  (or  left,)  and  then  all  move  straight  for- 
ward. 

In  a  charge  in  line,  500  paces  are  passed  over  at  the     m. 
walk  and  trot,  200  at  the  gallop,  and  100  at  the  charge,      j 

Sometimes  the  4th  platoon  charges  in  one  rank,  in  j 
open  order,  and  is  supported  by  the  remaining  platoons  ' 
in  close  order.  g 

Again,  the  1st,  2d,  and  4th  platoons  charge  helter-     ^ 
skelter,  as  foragers,  and  are  supported  by  the  3d  platoon, 
which  remains  in  close  order. 


SKIRMISHERS. 

The  4th  platoon  is  usually  employed  for  skirmishing-duty. 

At  the  command  of  the  captain  the  chief  of  this  platoon  conducts  it  to 
a  point  from  150  to  200  paces  in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  squadron,  and 
there  halts  it.  The  four  left  files  (or  as  many  more  as  may  be  directed) 
return  sabres,  or  rest  lances,  and  at  once  dash  out  about  100  paces  to  the; 


300  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

front  at  a  gallop,  and  there  form  in  one  rank  with  sufficient  intervals  to 
enable  them  to  cover  the  wholo  front  of  the  squadron ;  the  rear-rank  men 
are  on  the  left  of,- and  near  to,  their  front-rank  men. 

One  man  of  each  file  must  always  have  his  piece  loaded. 

They  halt  while  firing,  but  keep  moving  while  loading,  describing  a 
figure  jQ(Q  as  they  ride. 

Since  the  skirmishers  are  intended  to  cover  the  squadron,  they,  as  well 
as  the  rest  of  the  platoon,  must  conform  to  all  its  movements. 

When  any  party  of  cavalry  is  obliged  to  dismount  to  fight  on  foot,  the 
Nos.  3  of  each  rank  remain  mounted,  and  hold  the  horses  of  Nos.  1  anH  2. 

The  formation  of  a  regiment  deployed  is  with  its  4  squadrons  in  line, 
with  intervals  of  6  paces;  the  standard  on  the  right  of  the  3d  squadron; 
the  colonel,  accompanied  by  the  adjutant  and  2  trumpeters,  60  paces  in 
front  of  the  centre;  the  junior  field  officer  20  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre 
of  the  regiment. 

A  regiment  may  be  formed  in  column  by  squadrons  closed  in  mass,  the 
distance  being  platoon  front  plus  6  paces;  by  squadrons  with  full  distance; 
by  platoons  doubled  on  the  central  platoons ;  and  in  line  of  columns  of 
squadrons  by  platoons. 

A  regiment  being  in  line,  the  front  is  changed  by  squadrons :  e.g.j  to 
change  front  forward  90°  on  the  1st  squadron  the  1st  squadron  wheels  to 
the  right  and  halts,  the  other  squadrons  each  make  a  half  wheel  to  the 
right,  then  march  straight  forward  until  they  arrive  opposite  their  respect- 
ive places  in  the  new  line,  when  they  again  half  wheel  to  the  right  into 
their  places. 

To  deploy  a  close  column  the  leading  squadron  halts,  the  others  wheel 
by  platoons  to  the  left,  (or  right,)  march  straight  forward  until  they 
arrive  opposite  their  places  in  line,  when  they  wheel  by  platoon  to  the 
right,  (or  left,)  and  advance  in  line  to  their  posts.  This  deployment  is 
executed  at  a  trot. 

During  a  charge  in  line  the  standard-bearer  falls  back  into  the  rear  rank. 
•  If  the  ground  over  which  a  charge  is  to  be  made  is  not  known,  an 
officer  is  sent  forward  to  examine  it  and  report  to  the  colonel. 

The  entire  force  of  a  regiment  should  not  charge,  but  some  of  the 
flank  platoons  should  be  held  in  reserve. 

Sometimes  the  4th  platoons  of  all  the  squadrons,  or  one  entire  squadron, 
charge  as  foragers,  supported  by  the  rest  of  the  regiment  in  close  order. 

Sometimes  the  1st,  2d,  and  4th  platoons  of  all  the  squadrons  charge, 
while  the  3d  platoons,  under  the  command  of  the  junior  field  officer,  are 
held  in  reserve. 

The  charge  by  echelons  is  also  employed. 

A  regiment  being  formed  in  column  by  squadrons,  there  are  two 
Jnethods  of  employing  it  in  a  charge ; 


PRUSSIAN   CAVALRY.  301 

1st.  The  column  being  right  in  front,  the  4th  squadron  leaves  the 
column  and  forms,  the  1st  and  2d  platoons  on  the  right,  the  3d  and  4th 
on  the  left  flank  of  the  column,  the  commandants  of  these  platoons  being 
on  the  alignment  of  the  file-closers  of  the  3d  squadron ;  the  column  then 
moves  off  at  a  trot,  next  at  a  gallop ;  as  soon  as  it  takes  the  gallop  the  1st 
squadron  charges ;  when  the  colonel  gives  the  command,  haltj  the  4th 
squadron  charges  as  foragers. 

2d.  The  column  being  right  in  front,  moves  forward  at  a  trot;  the  1st  , 
squadron  then  charges,  and  afterwards  retires  by  the  flanks  of  the  column 
to  the  rear,  where  it  re-forms  ]  the  other  squadrons  then  charge  in  suc- 
cession in  the  same  manner. 

If  skirmishers  are  to  be  deployed  to  cover  the  regiment,  either  the  4th 
platoons  of  all  the  squadrons,  or  one  entire  squadron,  are  detailed  for  the 
purpose^ 

If  the  regiment  is  to  dismount  to  fight  on  foot,  it  is  eflfected  upon  the 
principles  explained  for  a  single  squadron. 

In  a  brigade  deployed,  the  interval  between  the  regiments  is  12  paces. 
The  general  of  brigade  is  100  paces  in  front  of  the  centre,  and  is  accom- 
panied by  the  brigade  adjutant  and  two  trumpeters. 

HORSE  EQUIPMENTS. 

The  cuirassiers  use  a  heavy  saddle,  with  a  low  pommel  and  cantle ;  it 
is  covered  with  leather,  and  presents  nothing  worthy  of  imitation. 

The  rest  of  the  cavalry  have  the  Hungarian  saddle ;  it  diffiers  from  the 
Austrian  model  principally  in  the  manner  of  attaching  the  equipment  j 
the  forks  are  permanently  bolted  to  the  bars;  there  is  more  iron-work    • 
upon  it,  and  small  skirts  are  attached  to  it. 

Eight  sizes  of  trees  are  made ;  the  average  weight  of  the  bare  tree  is 
seven  pounds. 

The  English  saddle  is  the  uniform  for  officers;  they  use  a  girth  of 
hemp  cords.  ^  ^ 

For  the  men,  the  valise  is  replaced  by  a  flat  bag,  opening  in  the  middle 
of  the  lower  side,  which  contains  the  clothes,  and  is  laid  on  the  tree, 
under  the  schabraque,  the  man  sitting  on  it. 

The  pouches  are  large  and  heavy ;  they  are  attached  to  the  saddle  by 
spring  hooks,  and  contain  many  of  the  necessaries. 

The  pistol-holster  is  in  one  of  the  pouches;  also  a  pocket  for  extra 
cartridges ;  to  one  pouch  the  hatchet  is  attached. 

The  cloak  and  forage-bag  are  strapped  to  the  cantle ;  the  kettle,  in  a 
leather  case,  is  attached  to  the  left  side  of  the  hind  fork.  The  schabraque 
is  of  blue  cloth,  with  a  lining  of  coarse  linen ;  it  has  pockets  in  the  lining. 

Cruppers  and  breast-straps  are  used;  the  surcingle  is  of  leather,  and 
fastens  in  the  Mexican  style;  the  girth  is  also  of  leather,  about  3 J  inches 


302  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

wide,  and  with  a  large  buckle ;  it  is  in  two  parts,  and  is  attached  to  the 
bars  by  thongs  of"  raw  hide. 

The  saddle-blanket  is  8'  by  6'  3" ;  it  is  folded  in  12  thicknesses. 

The  forage-bag  is  of  white  linen. 

The  forage-cord  has  an  iron  ring  at  one  end. 

The  nose-bag  is  of  coarse  linen,  the  bottom  bound  and  crossed  with 
broad  linen  tape. 

The  curry-comb  is  6"  by  4'',  with  four  rows  of  teeth ;  one  pattern,  for 
field  service,  has  a  strap  attached  to  the  back,  instead  of  a  handle,  the 
hand  being  run  under  the  strap. 

The  mane-comb  is  of  horn;  metallic  combs  have  been  tried  and 
abandoned. 

The  shoe-pouches,  one  ftn  each  side  of  the  hind  fork,  contain,  each,  1  fore 
and  1  hind  shoe,  as  well  as  16  common  and  4  ice  nails,  in  a  straw  cushion. 

The  stirrups  are  of  steel,  and  roughly  made. 

A  hemp  surcingle  is  used  in  the  stable. 

Two  bits  are  used,  both  of  steel ;  the  curb  has  straight  branches,  and 
a  heavy  steel  chain. 

The  headstall  is  single ;  the  curb  is  buckled  to  the  cheek-pieces ;  near 
its  lower  end  a  strap  about  2"  long  is  sewed  to  one  side  of  each  cheek- 
piece  ;  the  snaffle  is  attached  to  a  ring  at  the  end  of  this  strap  by  a  chain 
and  toggle. 

The  curb-reins  are  4'  long.     No  martingale  is  used. 

The  halter  presents  nothing  peculiar :  the  rope  is  6'  long,  and  is  either 
of  hemp  or  hair ;  in  garrison  a  chain  is  sometimes  used.  By  attaching  a 
snaffle-bit  and  rein,  the  halter  serves  as  a  watering-bridle. 

The  Russian  bit  is  being  tried  :  in  this  experiment  the  snaffle  fastens  to 
the  halter-headstall  by  a  chain  and  toggle,  while  the  curb-headstall,  which 
is  very  light,  passes  through  loops  on  the  halter. 

All  articles  of  each  set  of  equipments  are  branded  with  the  number  of 
the  set.  ^ 

ARMS  AND  ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Cuirassiers  J  sabre  of  the  old  French  cuirassier  pattern;  20  men  in 
each  squadron  have  a  smooth-bore  carbine,  with  a  barrel  15''  long;  the 
rest  of  the  men  a  pistol,  with  a  9"  barrel.* 

Dragoons,  light-cavalry  sabre,  blade  32"  long,  and  1^"  wide  at  the 
shoulder,  considerably  curved,  guard  and  scabbard  of  steel;  sergeants 
and  trumpeters,  1  pistol  each;  50  men  in  each  squadron  have  a  rifled 
carbine,  the  rest  a  smooth-bore  carbine. 

Lancers  J  sabre  as  for  dragoons;  lance  10^'  long;,  firearms  as  for 
cuirassiers. 

Hussars,  armed  as  described  for  dragoons. 

The  cuirassiers  have  metallic  helmet,  breast  and  back  pieces. 


PRUSSIAN   CAVALRY.  303 

The  sabre-belt  is  an  ordinary  Vaist-belt  with  slings;  it  fastens  by 
means  of  an  (y^  book. 

The  cartridge-box  is  attached  to  a  shoulder-belt;  it  contains  18  rounds; 
it  is  filled  by  a  wooden  block,  in  which  a  hole  is  bored  for  every  car- 
tridge. 

The  carbine,  or  pistol,  rammer  is  attached  to  the  cartridge-box  belt  by 
a  thin  strap,  the  rammer  being  slipped  through  two  loops  on  the  cartridge- 
box. 

The*carbine-sling  is  not  peculiar. 

On  the  march  the  carbine  is  carried  in  a  boot,  the  small  of  the  stock 
being  strapped  to  the  pommel. 

UNIFORM. 

The  dragoons  wear  a  helmet  of  black  leather,  surmounted  by  a  brass 
spear-head. 

The  lancers  have  the  ordinary  lancers*  cap,  the  czapka. 

Tie  hussars,  a  cylindrical  shako  of  fur,  without  visor. 

The  forage-cap  has  no  visor. 

The  clothing  is  of  excellent  material,  and  is  well  made ;  it  is  made  up 
in  the  regiments.  • 

A  short  frock-coat  is  worn  by  all  the  cavalry. 

Coat  and  pants  are  lined  throughout. 

The  pants  are  re-enforced  with  black  leather,  and  are  split  about  6" 
from  the  bottom,  along  the  outer  seam,  the  slit  fastening  with  hooks  and 
eyes ;  straps  of  leather  are  sewed  to  the  pants. 

Boots  are  worn  under 'the  pants;  steel  spurs  are  permanently  attached 
to  the  boots. 

The  overcoat  has  a  large  rolling  collar,  and  no  cape ;  it  is  of  a  dark- 
gray  color,  nearly  black. 

The  stock  is  of  bombazine,  lined  with  linen ;  it  has  a  flap  in  front,  and 
fastens  by  means  of  a  buckle. 

The  buttons  are  plain. 

Shirts,  seeks,  and  cloth  mittens  are  issued.  * 

HORSES. 

There  is  a  central  commission  at  Berlin  charged  with  the  regulation  of 
the  purchase  of  horses. 

For  this  purpose,  the  monarchy  is  divided  into  three  districts ;  1st,  the 
country  east  of  the  Vistula ;  2d,  that  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Elbe ;  3d, 
the  Rhenish  provinces. 

There  is  a  sub-commission  for  each  of  these  (Jistricts,  and  several  re- 
mount depots. 

The  horses  are  purchased  between  the  ages  of  3  and  7,  the  preference 


p04  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

being  given  to  young  horses,  which  remain  at  the  remount  depots  until 
they  are  4^  years  old. 

The  horse  is  supposed  to  give  9  years'  service,  on  the  average ;  there- 
fore, each  regiment  is  annually  supplied  with  remount  horses  to  the  num- 
ber of  one-ninth  of  its  total  strength. 

As  an  instance  of  the  price  of  horses,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in 
1854,  in  the  province  of  Pomerania,  733  horses  were  offered  to  the  sub- 
commission,  311  of  which  were  purchased;  the  average  price  paid  was 
$85,  the  highest  price  $137. 

Prussia  is  not  now  obliged  to  import  horses  for  the  army. 

The  horses  are  branded  with  the  initials  of  the  name  and  the  number 
of  the  regiment  to  which  they  belong,  also  with  the  sign  of  the  province 
where  purchased. 

The  horses  are  generally  good,Jbut  by  no  means  extraordinary. 

The  minimam  height  of  horses  for  the  garde  du  corps  is 16  hands. 

cuirassiers  is 15  hands  2  inches. 

light  guard  and  lancers  is.. .15  hands  i  incn. 

dragoons  and  hussars  is 14  hands  3x%  inches- 

The  minimum  height  of  artillery  draught-horses  is 16  hands. 

^      saddle-horses  is 14  hands  3j^  inches. 

From  2  to  4  spare  horses  are  allowed  each  squadron. 

Every  lieutenant  of  cavalry  receives  a  public  horse  once  in  5  years ;  if 
he  rides  the  same  horse  for  that  time,  it  becomes  his  private  property  at 
the  expiration  of  the  period,  unless  he  is  promoted  to  a  captaincy  in  the 
interim. 

If  he  does  not  avail  himself  of  this  privilege  for  5  years,  he  receives 
a  compensation  of  from  $100  to  $110  at  the  expiration  of  that  time. 

If  he  loses  his  public  horse  in  time  of  war,  he  receives  a  new  one,  and 
is  credited  for  the  time  he  rode  the  first. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  colonels  to  see  that  the  officers  are  properly 
mounted. 

In  time  of  war,  or  in  case  of  pressing  necessity,  the  laws  allow  the 
government  to  seize  the  horses  of  citizens '  for  the  use  of  the^army ;  the 
owners  are  paid  a  price  determined  by  a  board  of  officers. 

RATIONS   OF   THE   MEN. 

In  garrison,  bread  only  is  issued  in  kind,  1^  pounds  to  the  ration;  it 
must  have  been  baked  at  least  24  hours  ^before  issue,  and  is  issued  every 
4  days.  The  rest  of  the  food  is  purchased,  by  means  of  a  small  daily 
allowance  in  money,  by  a  commission  consisting  of  the  colonel,  1  cliptain, 
1  lieutenant,  and  4  sergeants. 

The  principal  food  is  soup,  with  a  small  slice  of  meat. 

No  coffee  is  issued ;  brandy  or  wine  in  lieu  of  it. 


PRUSSIAN   CAVALRY. 


305 


Tlie  largest  field  ration  consists  of: 

^  pound  of  meat,  or  \  pound  of  salt  pork ;  2  pounds  of  bread,  or  1 
pound  of  biscuit;  ^  pound  of  rice,  or  J  pound  of  peeled  barley,  or  J 
pound  beans  or  peas,  or  i  pound  of  meal,  or  li^  pounds  of  potatoes ;  J 
pint  of  brandy,  and  salt. 

The  bread  is  generally  carried  in  the  forage-sack;  the  brandy  in  a 
flask. 

The  annexed  sketch  gives 
the  form  and  dimensions  of 
the  kettle  carried  by  each 
man  in  the  field ;  it  is  in  a 
strong  leather  case,  strapped 
to  the  left  side  of  the  hind 
fork;  the  kettle  is  of  stout 
tin. 

A  is  the  cover. 

,B,  the  kettle. 

C,  plan  of  the  bottom. 

D,  pan,  fitting  in  B. 
E  and  F,  section  and  plan 

of  cover,  with  rings  to  serve 
as  handles,  and  small  tin 
springs  to  keep  it  in  place; 
it  is  carried  in  the  top,  (A.) 

G,  handle  of  top  (A) 
when  used  as  a  stew-pan, 
slipping  into  the  receptacle 
H;  it  is  4"  long,  and  is 
carried  in  D,  slipping  into  I. 

In  garrison,  mess-rooms  are  sometimes  provided ;  eacn  man  has  a  bowl 
and  wooden  spoon ;  the  bread  is  kept  in  the  quarters,  each  man  having  a 
cupboard  with  a  lock  and  key. 


QUARTERS. 

As  the  quarters  have  been  described  in  treating  of  the  infantry,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  say  here  that  they  are  usually  in  separate  buildings  from 
the  stables. 

The  horse  equipments  are  kept  in  the  quarters. 


FORAGE. 


The  ration  is  of  two  kinds,  the  heavy  and  the  light;  each  of  these 
varies  according  to  circumstances  as  follows : 


3  "  4 

3  "  4 

5  "  8 

3  "  4 

3  "  4 


806  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

Heavy  ration,  in  garrison 9    quarts  of  oats,  5  pounds  of  hay,  8  pounds  of  straw. 

on  march,  in  peace  lOJ 

in  the  field,  in  war  11 J 
Light  ration,   in  garrison 7i 

on  march,  in  peace    9 

in  the  field,  in  war  10 

With,  the  consent  of  the  minister  of  war,  the  ration  as  given  above 
may  be  changed,  as  follows  :  the  oats  may  be  replaced  by  rye,  barley,  bis- 
cuit, hay,  or  straw,  at  the  following  rates :  for  each  quart  of  oats  0.56 
quart  rye,  or  0.8  quart  barley,  or  f  pound  biscuit,  or  2|  pounds  hay,  or 
6i  pounds  straw ;  hay  may  be  replaced  by  straw  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds 
of  straw  for  1  pound  of  hay. 

The  straw,  as  given  above  in  the  garrison  ration,  is  one-half  fed,  the 
rest  used  for  litter. 

The  heavy  ration  is  issued  to  the  cavalry  of  the  guard,  the  horses  of 
the  riding-school,  the  horse  artillery  of  the  guard,  the  draught-horses  of 
all  the  artillery,  and  the  cuirassier  regiments. 

The  light  ration  is  issued  to  all  other  horses,  except  that  the  lancers 
receive  f  quart  of  oats  more  than  the  quantity  specified  above  for  the 
light  ration. 

From  the  day  of  their  purchase  until  joining  their  regiments,  the  re- 
mount horses  receive  from  7i  to  9  quarts  of  oats,  7  pounds  of  hay,  and 
4  pounds  of  straw  per  diem. 

STABLES. 

The  new  and  best  stables  are  of  brick,  of  one  story,  with  a  loft  above. 
They  have  a  central  passage-way,  with  a  row  of  stalls  on  each  side,  and 
usually  accommodate  the  horses  of  an  entire  regiment. 

In  some  cases,  the  stables  are  built  on  three  sides  of  a  rectangle;  each 
of  the  short  sides  for  1  squadron ;  the  long  side  for  2  squadrons,  and 
haying  a  riding-house  in  the  middle;  the  barracks,  detached,  form  the 
fourth  side.  In  other  cases,  the  long  side  is  for  1  squadron  and  the 
riding-house,  while  there  is  a  perpendicular  wing  for  each  of  the  other 
squadrons. 

The  stalls  are  5'  2"  wide,  9'  6"  long  to  the  heel-post,  V  thence  to  the 
drain;  the  central  passage-way  is  12' 4''  wide;  the  ceiling  15'  high. 
The  interior  of  jthe  stables  is  plastered,  and  the  communication  with  the 
loft  is  by  means  of  trap-doors  in  convenient  places  for  throwing  down  the 
hay. 

The  passage-way  is  paved  with  cubical  blocks  of  stone ;  the  stalls  with 
bricks  set  on  the  long  edge. 

The  stalls  are  separated  by  swinging  bars  suspended  by  a  hook  at  the 
head  of  the  stall  and  by  a  stem  and  socket  in  rear,  as  shown  in  the 
sketch  on  page  305,  in  which  A  is  the  heel-post,  B  the  swinging  bar. 


PRUS^AN   CAVALRY. 


307 


For  every  third  stall  there  is  a  window  3'  square,  the  sill  being  8'  6" 
above  the  floor;  above  the  other  stalls  are  ventilators,  10"  square,  that 
can  be  opened  and  closed  by  means 
of  iron  rods.     The  mangers  are  of    P^'^Hv/^ 
cast  iron,  2!  long,  11"  wide,  8"  deep ; 
the  top  4'  above  the  floor.     They 
are  supported  by  two  iron  stan- 
chions under  the  middle;   to  the 
one  nearest   the   hofse  he  is  at- 
tached by  a  sliding  ring. 

Each  horse  has  a  separate  iron 
of  which 


rack,  the  bottom 


9' 


HI. 

ii 


m 


A 


i 


■V' 


IS 

above  the  manger ;  it  is  2'  6"  long 

and  18"  deep.     The  hay  is  put  in  from  below,  after  beiner  sorted  and 

cleaned  from  dust. 

There  are  pumps  and  vats  in  the  stables. 

From  1  to  4  days'  forage  is  kept  in  the  loft,  there  being  forage- 
magazines  close  at  hand. 

A  board  is  nailed  across  from  one  heel-post  to  another,  about  T  above 
the  floor ;  on  this  is  painted  in  large  figures  the  number  of  the  stall,  and 
on  a  black-board  as  follows : 

Private  John  Smith. — Equipment  No.  162. 


Name  of  horse. 

Tear  of  remount. 

Sex. 

Height. 

Age. 

Ziethen 

1853 

Male 

4/  11// 

6 

The  age  is  that  at  the  time  of  his  joining  the  regiment,  or  at  the  year 
of  remount. 

A  black-board  is  hung  up  in  the  stable  of  each  squadron,  on  which  are 
inscribed  in  chalk,  daily,  the  names  of  the  stable-guard,  the  number  of 
government  horses  for  duty,  the  number  of  officers'  horses  for  duty,  the 
number  and  names  of  the  sick  horses. 

At  convenient  places  there  are  banquette  beds  for  the  stable-guard. 

Lanterns  are  swung  from  the  ceiling  along  the  middle  of  the  passage- 
way. • 

The  horse-hospital  and  the  shoeing-shop  are  in  separate  buildings,  the 
former  being  enclosed  by  a  wall. 

In  the  stable-yard  racks  are  provided  for  airing  the  litter. 

STABLE-DUTY. 
The  stable-guard  consists  of  1  corporal  and  8  men  per  squadron ;  they 
are  on  duty  for  24  hours,  sleep  in  the  stable,  feed  the  grain,  and  are  re- 


308  JTHE  ARMIES  OF'EUROPE. 

sponsible  for  the  police  and  order  of  the  stables  between  stable-calls.  Two 
of  the  number  must  be  on  duty  and  awake  day  and  night. 

The  stable-guard  and  the  stable-duty  generally  are  under  the  direction 
of  the  squadron  officer  of  the  day,  the  orderly  sergeant  and  the  squadron 
sergeant  of  the  day. 

The  ration  of  oats  is  divided  into  five  equal  portions.  One  of  these 
is  given  the  first  thing  in  the  morning ;  then  the  horse  is  cleaned  and 
watered;  after  this,  another  portion  is  given;  about  noon  the  horse 
receives  another  portion,  and  is  again  watered ;  soon  after  this  he  is 
again  rubbed  down,  and  after  that  receives  another  portion;  a  little  before 
dark  he  is  again  watered,  and  receives  the  last  portion. 

The  straw  is  generally  chopped  and  fed  with  the  oats,  the  greater  part 
being  given  with  the  last  portion.  ^ 

The  hay  is  fed  one-half  in  the  morning,  the  rest  after  the  last  evening 
feed. 

The  grain  is  fed  by  tte  stable-guard  as  follows :  a  box  mounted  on 
wheels  contains  the  feed,  and  is  wheeled  along  by  one  man ;  two  others, 
having  dish-shaped  baskets,  each  receive  from  the  corporal  the  portion 
for  1  horse,  and  pour  it  in  the  mangers  on  each  side  of  the  passage-way 
as  they  proceed.  The  orderly  sergeant  and  the  sergeant  of  the  day 
superintend. 

The  men  clean  out  the  mangers  of  their  own  horses  before  the 
feeding. 

Each  man  provides  his  own  horse  with  hay,  which  is  shaken  and  freed 
from  dust,  sticks,  weeds,  &c.,  before  being  placed  in?  the  racks. 

At  stable-call,  each  man  polices  the  stall  of  his  own  horse.  Birch 
brooms,  wooden  shovels  bound  with  iron,  and  light  forks  are  used  in 
policing  the  stables. 

For  every  10  horses  there  are  allowed  1  bucket,  1  sieve,  1  shovel,  1 
fork,  and  from  1  to  2  brooms. 

The  horses  are  sometimes  blanketed  in  the  stables. 

FIELD  SERVICE. 

In  the  field,  the  following  is  the  allowance  of  transportation  for  a 
regiment  of  cavalry^ 


1  four-horse  wagon,  containing  regimental  chest 300  pounds  we 

Paymaster's  an^i  other  regimental  books 40       " 

Adjutant's  desk 40        " 

OflScers'  mess-chest 100       " 

"       portmanteaus  (captains  55,  lieutenants  45  lbs.,  each) 1,340       " 

Total'weight 1,820       " 


ght. 


PRUS.SIAN  CAVALRY.  309 

1  two-horse  wagon,  containing  armorer's  tools 220  pounds  weight. 

Saddler's  tools v 110       «  " 

Baggage  of  the  surgeons ■ 100       "  " 

Medicines,  &c 252       "  « 

•   Totalweight. 682       «  " 

•  Each  squadron  has  a  two-horse  cart,  loaded  as  follows : 

Ofl&cers'  mess-chest 30  pounds  weight 

Farriers' tools 60  "  « 

Spare  equipment 173  "  " 

Blankets  for  sick  men 27  "  " 

Baggage,  <tc.,  of  orderly  sergeant 20  "  " 

Baggage,  <fec.,  of  the  medical  ^er«onneZ 60  "  " 

Money,  when  on  detachment 50  "  " 

Totalweight ; 420       «  " 

So  long  a  time  has  elapsed  since  the  Prussian  cavalry  have  seen  any 
serious  field  service  on  a  large  scale,  that  they  have  but  little  more  than 
theory  and  remote  traditions  in  this  regard ;  it  is  probable  that  we  have 
but  little  to  learn  from  them  on  this  point. 

Tents  are  not  used  in  the  Prussian  army ;  the  troops  being  placed  in 
cantonments,  huts,  or  bivouacs. 

The  huts  are  of  wood  or  straw,  and  either  square  or  round :  the  square 
huts  are  15'  square  in  the  interior,  and  are  for  l4  men  with  their  equip- 
ment ;  the  round  huts  are  20'  in  diameter,  and  contain  18  men  with  their 
equipment. 

The  round  huts  are  36,  the  square  28,  paces  apart,  from  centre  to 
centre. 

The  huts  of  each  squadron  are  in  two  rows,  facing  each  other  and 
perpendicular  to  the  fA)nt  of  the  camp ;  the  width  of  the  street  varying 
with  the  strength  of  the  squadron. 

The  picket-ropes  are  stretched  3  paces  in  front  of  the  lines  of  huts, 
and  parallel  to  them ;  they  are  attached  to  picket-pins,  driven  firmly  into 
the  ground,  2  paces  apart;  4 J  paces  in  rear  of  the  picket-rope  another 
rope  is  stretched,  parallel  to  it,  to  enclose  the  horses.  The  baggage  is  in 
rear  of  the  colonel's  hut ;  the  kitchens  25  paces  in  rear  of  the  baggage. 

The  kitchens  are  ditches  15  paces  long,  and  2'  deep,  one  for  each 
squadron. 

The  latrines  are  125  paces  in  rear  of  the  kitchens ;  those  for  the  men 
are  ditches  30'  long  and  3'  deep,  which  are  renewed  every  2  or  3  days  in 
summer. 

A  regiment  of  cavalry  may  bivouac  either  in  line  or  with  the  rows  of 
horses  perpendicular  to  the  front,  or  in  column  by  squadrons  with  half 
distance. 


310  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 


1.  BIVOUAC   IN  LINE. 


Each  squadron  is  allowed  a  space  75  paces  long,  by  30  paces  deep, 
with  intervals  of  4  paces  between  the  squadrons. 

The  kitchens  are  10  paces  behind  the  bivouac  of  the  men;  the 
squadron  officers  5  paces  in  rear  of  the  kitchens ;  the  staff  10  paces  in 
rear  of  the  squadron  officers. 

The  parade-ground  is  in  front  of  the  bivouac,  and  must  be  at  least  30 
paces  deep. 

A  bivouac  of  this  kind  occupies  a  front  of  312  paces,  and  a  depth  of 
80  paces,  counting  from  the  bivouac  of  the  front  rank  to  the  baggage- 
wagons,  inclusive. 

2.  BIVOUAC   WITH   PICKET-ROPES  PERPENDICULAR   TO   THE   FRONT. 

Each  squadron  is  allowed  a  front  of  50  paces,  and  a  depth  of  75,  with 
intervals  of  10  paces  between  the  squadrons.  The  arrangement  of  the 
kitchens,  &c.,  is  similar  to  that  in  the  preceding  case. 

The  parade-ground  is  in  front  of  the  camp,  and  is  50  paces  deep. 

A  bivouac  of  this  kind  occupies  a  front  of  230  paces  and  a  depth  of 
125,  between  the  same  points  as  in  the  last  case. 

3.   BIVOUAC   IN    COLUMN  BY   SQUADRONS. 

Each  squadron  is  allowed  a  front  of  75  paces,  and  a  depth  of  20,  with 
distances  of  10  paces  between  the  squadrons. 

The  kitchens  are  10  paces  from  one  flank  of  the  column,  the  squadron 
officers  5  paces  beyond  the  kitchens ;  the  colonel  and  staff  20  paces  behind 
the  last  squadron.  The  parade-ground  is  on  the  opposite  flank  from  the 
kitchens ;  a  free  space  50  paces  deep  is  left  in  front  of  the  bivouac  and 
parade-ground.  * 

This  bivouac  occupies  a  front  of  165  paces,  including  the  parade- 
ground,  and  a  depth  of  145  paces  between  the  same  points  as  in  the  last 
case. 

In  bivouac  the  sabres  are  stuck  in  the  ground  3  paces  in  front  of  the 
picket-ropes ;  the  shako  and  cartridge-box  hung  on  it. 

l^he  horse  equipments  are  placed  3  paces  in  rear  of  the  horses. 

In  time  of  peace,  cavalry  usually  march  14  miles  each  day,  resting 
every  fourth  day.  *  In  good  weather,  and  over  good  roads,  they  may 
march  28  miles  or  more ;  but  such  -long  marches  are  to  be  avoided,  as 
injurious  to  the  horses  and  equipment. 

On  good  roads,  and  in  good  weather,  the  march  is  usually  at  the  rate 
of  3  miles  per  hour ;  in  a  rough,  broken  country,  about  one-third  more 
time  must  be  allowed. 


PRUSSJAN    CAVALRY.  311 

To  place  a  squadron  on  a  railway-train  requires  about  2  hours ;  about 
1  hour  is  needed  to  take  them  off. 

2  locomotives  and  about  32  wagons  are  needed  to  transport  a  squadron. 

SCHOOL  OF  EQUITATION,  AT  SCHWEDT. 

Lieutenants  and  non-Qommissioned  officers  of  cavalry  and  artillery  are 
sent  to  this  school  for  instruction  in  equitation. 

The  course  lasts  two  years }  there  is  but  one  class  of  officers ;  that  is, 
they  all  enter  and  leave  the  school  at  the  same  time,  an  entirely  new  set 
entering  every  second  year  3  one-half  of  the  non-commissioned  officers 
leave  every  year. 

One  officer  is  sent  from  every  brigade  of  cavalry,  and  one  from  every  two 
regiments  of  artillery.  Two  non-commissioned  officers  are  sent  from  every 
regiment  of  cavalry  and  of  artillery. 

Each  officer  brings  2  private  horses  with  him,  the  school  furnishing 
him  with  a  third;  the  non-commissioned  officers  come  without  horses, 
and  take  back  to  their  regiments  the  horse  each  one  rode  during  the 
last  year. 

The  school  consists  of  1  field  officer  as  director,  3  captains,  or  lieu- 
tenants, as  instructors,  2  riding-masters,  24  lieutenants  and  94  non-com- 
missioned officers  as  pupils,  1  paymaster,  1  orderly  sergeant,  2  veterina- 
ries,  1  quartermaster,  1  horse-breaker,  57  privates  as  grooms,  27  privates 
as  officers'  servants. 

The  stables  and  riding-halls  are  ample,  and  well  arranged. 

The  riding  in  the  open  air  is  performed  on  a  drill-ground  some  dis- 
tance from  the  town ;  here  they  leap  ditches,  hurdles,  &c.,  fire  with  the 
carbine  and  pistol,  run  at  the  heads,  &c. 

The  annexed  sketch  explains  the  manner  of  attaching  the  ^ — n. 
head  to  the  post;  it  avoids  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  man    ^  ^ 

at  the  post  to  replace  the  head.  The  head  is  shaped  as  in 
the  figure,  and  is  partly  covered  with  leather;  at  A  it  is 
secured  by  a  leather  thong,  so  that  when  struck  it  moves 
around  that  point  as  a  hinge,  and  is  stopped  by  the  trian- 
gular piece  of  wood,  B;  it  thus  resumes  its  first  position. 
They  cut  at  balls  on  the  ground  on  the  right,  never  on  the 
left. 

The  pupils  are  taught  to  vault  on  and  off  the  horse  at  a  gallop.  Their 
time  is  fully  occupied  by  constant  exercises  during  the  day. 

The  usual  continental  system  of  employing  kickers  is  followed  here ; 
for  this  purpose  two  or  three  horses  are  taught  to  kick  and  plunge  in 
every  possible  way,  when  tied  up  close  to  two  posts;  the  recruits  are 
mounted  on  these,  without  stirrups,  and  hold  on,  if  they  can,  by  means 
of  a  couple  of  straps  attached  to  the  pommel. 

19 


312  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 

The  system  pursued  in  breaking  young  horses  is  one  of  extreme  care 
and  gentleness;  violent  measures  are  never  resorted  to;  considerable  at- 
tention is  paid  to  rendering  the  muscles  of  the  head  and  neck  pliable,  in 
order  to  gain  full  control  over  the  horse;  this,  however,  must  not  be  un- 
derstood as  indicating  approbation  of  the  Baucher  system,  which  here,  as 
well  as  elsewhere,  has  been  tried  and  found  to  be  unfit  for  cavalry 
purposes. 

THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOL  AT  BERLIN. 

At  this  institution  about  80  pupils  are  instructed  as  farriers  and  vete- 
rinaries  for  the  army,  in  addition  to  a  number  of  civilian  pupils. 

It  is  very  similar  to  the  veterinary  school  at  Vienna,  described  under 
the  head  of  the  Austrian  cavalry;  but  not  quite  so  extensive,  and  perhaps 
not  so  perfect. 

It  has  lecture  and  dissecting  rooms,  operating-halls,  museums  of  com- 
parative anatomy,  &c. 

The  stables  accommodate  about  80  horses,  and  are  arranged  for  from  4 
to  6  horses  in  each  division. 

The  interior  arrangement  of  the  stables  presents  nothing  peculiar, 
except  that  there  is  but  one  row  of  stalls  in  each.  There  are  boxes,  in 
separate  stables,  for  glandered  horses.  The  Russian  steam-bath  is  used 
in  the  establishment,  but  it  is  stated  that  the  result  is  not  generally  bene- 
ficial ;  it  has  been  applied  in  cases  of  rheumatism,  colic,  &c. 

The  horseshoeing  department  is  under  a  special  instructor.  The  shoes 
and  tools  present  nothing  new  or  worthy  of  imitation,  both  being  heavy 
and  awkward. 

The  shoes  have  no  groove,  but  the  nail-holes  are  countersunk ;  there 
are  four  nails  on  each  side ;  four  sizes  of  shoes  are  used  in  the  cavalry. 

The  method  of  shoeing  is  similar  to  that  pursued  in  Austria, — one  man 
holding  the  horse,  another  his  leg,  a  third  putting  on  the  shoe. 

A  vice  is  made  use  of  in  teaching  the  pupils  to  set  and  nail  on  a  shoe; 
the  hoof  and  pastern  of  a  horse  recently  deceased  are  placed  in  this  vice, 
which  is  attached  to  a  bench,  and  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of  being  thrown 
into  various  positions. 

Cows,  pigs,  dogs,  and  cats,  are  treated  in  this  institution.  The  horses 
of  civilians  are  cured  and  shod  upon  moderate  terms,  in  order  to  secure 
the  necessary  amount  of  practice  for  the  pupils. 

The  Prussian  military  literature  is  very  rich,  and  is  well  worthy  of 
study. 

Among  the  works  relating  to  cavalry,  which  may  be  consulted  with 
advantage,  are — 

Kalkstein  on  the  Prussian  Army;  Die  Preussische  Armee,  nach  ihren 
reglementarischen  Formen  und  Einrichtungen,  &c.,  von  R.  v.  Kalkstein ; 


PRUSSIAN  CAVALRY.  313 

Minis'  Aide-memoire;  Hiilfsbuch  beim  theoretischen  Unterricht  des 
Cavalleristen,  von  Minis — this  gives  the  interior  service  in  great  detail. 

Witzleben  on  Army  Affairs ;  Heerwesen  und  Infanteriedienst  der  K6- 
niglieh  Preussischen  Armee,  von  A.  von  Witzleben ;  Buschbeck's  Field 
Pocket-Book;  Preussisches  Feld-Taschenbuch  fur  Offiziere  aller  Waffen, 
von  F.  Buschbeck ;  the  Hand-Book  of  Field  Service  for  Cavalry  Officers, 
Handbuch  des  Felddienstes  fur  Cavallerie-Offiziere,  von  einem  Cavallerie- 
Offizier. 

Schimmel's  Partisan  Warfare ;  Compendium  des  kleinen  Krieges,  for 
Infanterie-  und  Cavallerie-Offiziere,  von  Friederich  Schimmel. 

Seidler  on  Breaking  Horses ;  Seidler,  Bearbeitung  des  Campagne-Pfer- 
des,  and  Seidler,  Dressur  difficiler  Pferde. 

Prof.  Hertwig's  Works  on  the  Veterinary  Science;  Praktisches 
Handbuch  der  Chirurgie  fur  Thierarzte;  Taschenbuch  der  gesammten 
Pferdekunde;  Praktische  Arzneimittellehre  fiir  Thierarzte,  von  Dr. 
C.  H.  Hertwig. 

All  these  works  are  to  be  found  in  the  library  of  the  War  Department. 


314  THE  ARMIES  OF   EUROPE. 


AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY. 


ORGANIZATION. 

In  the  Austrian  army  there  are  16  regiments  of  heavy  cavalry — i.e. 
8  of  cuirassiers  and  8  of  dragoons;  and  24  of  light  cavalry — i.e.  12  of 
hussars  and  12  of  lancers. 

Each  regiment  of  the  former  consists  of  6  active  squadrons,  the  men 
and  horses  being  chiefly  from  the  German  provinces. 

Each  regiment  of  light  cavalry  has  8  active  squadrons ;  the  men  and 
horses  of  the  hussars  being  Hungarian  and  Transylvanian ;  those  of  the 
lancers  are,  for  the  most  part,  from  Poland. 

Each  regiment  has  a  colonel,  one  field  officer  for  every  two  squadrons, 
an  adjutant,  paymaster,  quartermaster,  and  judge  advocate. 

The  squadron  is  the  unit  for  the  administration  and  interior  service ; 
the  division  of  2  squadrons  commanded  by  a  field  officer  is  the  tactical 
unit.     Each  division  has  a  standard. 

A  squadron  of  heavy  cavalry  consists  of: 
1  capi^in  commanding,  called  1st  captain. 

1  2d  captain. 

2  lieutenants. 

2  sub-lieutenants. 
2  sergeants. 
12  corporals. 
1  trumpeter.  • 

1  saddler. 
1  veterinary. 
162  men  and  150  government  horses. 
A  squadron  of  light  cavalry  consists  of: 
1  captain  commanding. 

1  2d  captain. 

2  lieutenants. 

2  sub-lieutenants. 
2  sergeants. 
12  corporals. 
2  trumpeters. 
1  saddler. 
1  veterinary. 
200  men  and  201  government  horses. 


AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY.  315 

In  addition  to  the  numbers  given  above,  2  officers'  servants  are  allowed 
to  each  squadron. 

The  general  rule  is,  that  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  men  are  dismounted; 
it  is  stated  by  some  of  their  cavalry  officers  that  20  per  cent,  would,  in 
time  of  war,  be  a  better  proportion. 

The  dismounted  men  remain  at  the  depot,  or  ride  in  the  wagons; 
they  never  use  the  horses  of  the  other  men,  and  do  all  the  dismounted 
duty,  take  care  of  the  led  horses,  those  of  the  sergeants,  &c. 

Each  regiment  has  a  depot,  which,  during  peace,  consists  of  30  men ; 
in  time  of  war,  it  has  the  same  strength  as  the  other  squadrons,  and 
supplies  men  to  fill  the  vacancies  which  occur.  The  junior  1st  cap- 
tain of  the  regiment  usually  commands  the  depot,  but  after  2  years' 
service  with  it  he  may  demand  to  be  replaced  by  a  senior  1st  captain. 

In  time  of  peace,  the  depot  is  usually  with  the  head-quarters  of  the 
regiment ;  during  •  war,  it  is  placed  at  some  spot  convenient  to  the  line 
of  operations  of  the  regiment.  In  war,  the  remount  horses  are  kept 
with  the  depot  until  they  can  join  the  service  squadrons.  During  the 
Hungarian  war,  there  was  one  instance  when  there  were  1,000  horses 
with  the  depot  of  a  regiment  of  lancers  which  formed  part  of  the  gar- 
rison of  the  besieged  place  of  Temesvar. 

TACTICS   AND   INSTRUCTION. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  general  tone  of  the  tactics,  a  few  ex- 
tracts will  be  given,  relating  chiefly  to  the  seat  and  the  early  instruction 
of  the  recruits. 

For  the  cavalry,  equitation  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

It  consists  not  only  in  the  ability  to  sit  the  horse,  but  also  in  knowing 
how  to  conduct  and  use  him  under  all  circumstances. 

The  object  of  the  cavalry  instruction  is  to  accomplish  this  purpose  in 
the  shortest  time,  and  in  the  simplest  manner,  suited  to  the  mental  and 
physical  qualities  of  the  soldiers. 

Therefore,  no  intricate  system  of  equitation  will  answer  the  purpose; 
although  the  instruction  of  the  non-commissioned  officers  may  be  carried^ 
further  than  that  of  the  privates. 

The  instruction  in  the  riding-school  is  intended  to  give  the  rider  suffi- 
cient skill  to  enable  him,  by  means  of  the  various  aids,  to  control  the- 
horse,  and  cause  him  to  execute  all  possible  movements,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  give  such  a  position  to  the  upper  part  of  the  body  and  the  arms 
as  will  cause  the  rider  the  least  fatigue,  and  enable  him  to  use  his 
weapons  with  the  greatest  efiect. 

It  is  an  absolute  rule  that  the  recriiit  must  never  be  passed  from  one 
lesson  to  another  until  he  fully  comprehends,  and  can  execute  well,  all. 
that  precedes. 


316  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

Good  judgment,  tranquillity,  patience,  and  mild  treatment,  are  the 
most  important  qualities  in  an  instructor. 

The  strength  of  neither  horse  nor  man  should  be  over-taxed. 

An  experienced  and  skilful  instructor  will  always  go  to  work  with 
circumspection,  and  never  allow  himself  to  be  induced  by  passion  to 
demand  more  of  man  or  horse  than  they  are  in  condition  to  perform 
or  the  end  in  view  requires. 

The  instruction  must  progress  only  according  to  proficiency;  there- 
fore, any  practice  in  the  various  turns,  or  in  passaging,  while  the  requi- 
site preliminary  instruction  is  wanting,  is  not  only  useless,  but  injurious. 

Besides  teaching  the  recruit  the  ordinary  care  of  his  horse,  he  must 
also  be  made  familiar  with  the  difiierent  parts  of  his  equipment,  and  be 
taught  how  to  saddle,  pack,  and  bridle  his  horse. 

In  addition,  before  being  taught  to  ride,  he  must  receive  some  instruc- 
tion in  the  position  of  the  soldier,  the  facings  and  marching  on  foot 
without  weapons,  since  he  acquires  thereby  a  more  unconstrained  and 
regular  position,  which  facilitates  the  instruction  in  riding. 

Finally,  there  are  some  exercises  on  foot  which  have  special  reference 
to  the  position  of  the  rider.  Among  these  are  :  To  throw  back  and  lower 
the  shoulder-blades  by  crossing  the  arms  behind  the  back ;  turning  the 
wrists  with  the  fingers  closed ;  to  stand  on  an  even  floor,  with  the  feet 
parallel  and  the  thighs  apart;  then  to  lower  and  raise  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  by  bending  the  knees ;  by  this  means  the  necessary  flexibility 
of  the  knees  and  the  vertical  position  of  the  haunches  are  obtained. 

The  recruit  being  on  foot,  the  reins  are  placed  in  his  hands,  and  he  is 
taught  how  to  hold  them;  the  use  of  the  legs  is  explained  to  him  at  the 
same  time. 

The  recruits  will  also  be  greatly  benefited  by  being  frequently  shown 
a  well-broken  horse,  fully  packed,  and  mounted  by  a  well-drilled  soldier. 
The  time  bestowed  upon  these  preliminaries  will  not  be  thrown  away,  but 
will  be  found  to  be  amply  repaid  by  the  increased  facility  with  which  the 
recruit  will  learn  his  duty,  and  the  smaller  amount  of  explanation  required 
from  the  instructor. 

Quiet  and  well- broken  horses  must  always  be  given  to  recruits. 

Their  instruction  must  never  commence  without  stirrups,  but  they  will 
ride  without  stirrups  only  after  they  have  acquired  a  firm,  sure  seat  j  it  is 
entirely  inadmissible  for  the  recruits  to  ride  without  stirrups  in  the  lessons 
with  the  longe. 

All  movements  will  be  first  taught  at  a  walk  j  afterwards  at  the  trot  and 
gallop. 

The  walk  must  be  lively,  free,  and  decided. 

The  trot  must  be  decided,  easy,  united,  uniform,  long,  and  sure. 

The  gallop  should  be  calm,  united,  long,  and  low. 


AUSTRIAN   CAVALRY.  817 

A  good  instructor  can  drill  8  or  4  recruits ;  but  the  same  instructor 
should  always  drill  the  same  men. 

The  intelligence  of  the  instructor,  the  progress  of  the  recruits,  and  the 
pressure  of  circumstances,  must  determine  how  long  each  lesson  is  to  be 
dwelt  upon,  and  when  to  pass  from  one  lesson  to  another. 

OF   THE    SEAT. 

On  horseback,  the  body  has  three  points  of  support, — ^the  extremities 
of  the  haunch-bones  and  the  end  of  the  spine ;  therefore,  the  haunches 
form  the  foundation  of  the  seat,  and  on  their  direction  depends  the  posi- 
tion of  the  rider. 

When  the  recruit  mounts  for  the  first  time,  his  haunches,  thighs,  the 
lower  part  of  the  legs,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  must  be  placed  in 
position  for  him. 

The  haunches  must  be  square  on  the  saddle,  and  perpendicular  to  it,  so 
that  both  haunch-bones  may  rise  alike,  and  the  end  of  the  spine  be  exactly 
over  the  middle  of  the  saddle.  If  the  haunches  are  leaned  too  far  back, 
the  waist  is  carried  with  them,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  bent,  and  the 
thighs  raised ;  if  the  haunches  are  leaned  forward,  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  loses  its  steady  position,  requires  an  effort  to  preserve  its  equilibrium, 
and  the  thighs  are  thrown  too  far  back. 

The  thighs  must  be  so  much  turned  out,  and  thrown  forward  with  the 
knees,  that  they  may  lie  flat  on  the  saddle.  The  extent  to  which  this 
may  be  carried  is  determined  by  the  prescribed  perpendicular  position  of 
the  haunches ;  if  the  thighs  are  thrown  too  far  forward,  the  haunches  will 
lean  back ;  and  if  the  thighs  are  too  far  back,  the  body  is  raised  from  the 
saddle.  The  lower  part  of  the  legs,  from  the  knee  down,  must  hang  along 
the  sides  of  the  horse  quite  naturally,  and  without  constraint :  they  should 
not  be  opened  out,  nor  strongly  raised  or  pressed  together.  The  whole 
surface  of  the  foot  must  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  stirrup.  The  heel  must 
be  dropped  so  as  to  stretch  the  muscles  of  the  thigh,  but  not  so  much  as 
to  stretch  the  calf  of  the  leg  or  the  ankle-joint;  for  upon  the  mobility  of 
the  ankle  depends,  not  only  keeping  the  stirrup,  but  also  the  falling  back 
of  the  thigh  into  its  proper  place  after  each  step  of  the  horse.  Although 
the  whole  inner  surface  of  the  thigh  must  be  flat  on  the  saddle,  it  must 
not  be  stiff  and  constrained. 

When  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  hangs  naturally,  the  toe  is  a  little 
turned  out. 

The  foot  is  thrust  into  the  stirrup  as  far  as  the  ball  of  the  great  toe, 
and  must  rest  lightly  on  the  bottom  of  the  stirrup.  The  vertical  plane 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  must  pass  through  the  heels,  by 
which  means  the  rider  has  more  power,  and  the  knees  produce  more  effect. 

In  riding  without  stirrups,  the  thighs  must  be  well  extended  and  the 


318  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

knees  lowered,  so  that  tlie  rider  may  irot  cling  to  the  horse  with  the 
calves,  and  may  have  the  buttocks  firmly  on  the  saddle.  The  spine  should 
be  vertical  above  the  hips.  The  back  of  the  rider  must  be  elastic,  but 
firm ;  because  this  is  necessary  in  using  his  weapons,  and  also  to  break 
the  violence  of  the  blow  caused  by  the  motion  of  the  horse,  particularly 
at  a  trot,  and  the  rider  is  thus  prevented  from  being  tossed  up  from  the 
saddle,  shaken,  or  strained.  A  firm  back  is  also  necessary  to  resist  the 
forward  motion  of  the  horse;  and  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
peculiar  construction  of  the  joints  of  the  spine  admits  of  a  forward  motion 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  the  opposite  direction.  Since  the  rider's 
hands  are  in  absolute  connection  with  the  mouth  of  the  horse,  he  is  pulled 
forward  by  a  horse  heavy  on  the  hand,  or  bearing  on  the  bit,  and  finds 
himself  unable  to  control  such  an  animal  unless  his  back  is  firm. 

In  long  marches,  the  fully-armed  soldier  is,  in  consequence  of  fatigue, 
much  inclined  to  throw  the  body  forward. 

These  are  good  reasons  for  giving  great  attention  to  a  good,  upright, 
firm,  and  elastic  carriage  of  the  spine. 

The  shoulders  must  be  sunk,  and  both  blades  thrown  back,  not  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  stretch  the  muscles  of  the  breast,  but  merely  to  expand  it 
freely ;  if  the  shoulders  are  raised,  the  breast  is  contracted,  which  is  in- 
jurious to  the  health. 

If  one  shoulder  is  lower  than  the  other,  the  corresponding  hip  is  drawn 
inward,  and  vice  versa.  The  head  must  be  carried  easily  on  the  shoulders, 
and  the  chin  slightly  raised  :  if  the  head  is  thrown  too  far  back,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  spine  is  injured;  if  it  is  bent  too  far  forward,  the  shoulders 
are  rounded,  and  the  rider's  field  of  view  contracted. 

In  the  beginning  the  reins  are  placed  in  both  hands,  each  rein  passing 
through  the  whole  hand. 

The  upper  part  of  the  arm,  without  pressing  against  the  body,  hangs 
near  it,  naturally,  straight,  and  freely ;  if  the  elbow  is  pressed  against  the 
body,  the  shoulder  is  raised,  and  the  position  of  the  hand  becomes  con- 
strained and  unnatural ;  while,  if  the  elbow  is  thrown  out  too  far  from 
the  body,  the  hand  becomes  unsteady. 

The  forearm  is  lightly  closed  on  the  body,  the  hands  so  rounded  at 
the  wrists  as  to  bring  the  thumbs  opposite  each  other,  and  the  little 
fingers  somewhat  towards  the  body;  the  hands  are  held,  with  the  fists 
closed,  4  inches  apart,  and  just  above  the  pommel.  The  outer  hand  is 
a  hand's  breadth  higher  than  the  inner. 

To  acquire  a  light,  firm  hand,  the  slight  pressure  of  the  forearm 
against  the  body  is  necessary ;  for  if  the  recruit  endeavors  to  gain  it  by 
a  strong  pressure  of  the  forearm  against  the  body,  he  will  acquire  a 
stifi",  heavy  hand. 

In  sitting  the  horse  the  body  is  divided  into  two  movable  parts,  and  one 


AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY.  319 

immovable  :  the  movable  parts  are  from  the  hips  upwards,  and  from  the 
knees  downwards ;  the  immovable  part  is  the  thigh,  which,  to  a  certain 
extent,  is  indivisible  from  the  saddle,  and  should  be  as  though  glued  to  it. 

The  legs  should  hang  with  the  full  weight,  so  that  the  rider  will 
neither  stand  on  the  stirrups,  nor  close  the  knees  unnaturally,  because 
this  closing  of  the  crotch  throws  up  the  knees,  which  fault  increases  with 
every  motion  of  the  horse,  especially  at  a  trot  or  gallop. 

The  chief  departures  from  a  regular  seat  are  :  the  ^plit,  the  forked,  and 
the  stool  seats. 

In  the  first,  the  legs  and  knees  are  thrown  too  far  back ;  in  the  second, 
they  are  too  nearly  vertical ;  in  the  third,  the  hips  are  too  far  back,  and 
the  knees  too  far  forward. 

In  the  first  lessons  the  recruit  must  be  allowed  to  take  the  position 
which  his  build  renders  most  convenient,  and  the  instructor  must  not  be 
rigid  in  his  corrections,  but  allow  the  men  to  acquire  confidence. 

The  shape  of  the  saddle,  and  the  form  and  gait  of  the  horse,  have  a  de- 
cided influence  upon  the  seat;  the  Hungarian  saddle  is  better  than  any 
other  for  giving  an  upright  and  handsome  seat,  but  great  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  man  does  not  acquire  a  split  or  forked  seat. 

A  proper  adaptation  of  man  and  horse,  the  discovery,  judicious  criti- 
cism upon,  and  removal  of  the  causes  which  prevent  the  recruit  from 
assuming  a  good  seat,  do  more  to  hasten  the  instruction  than  loud  halloo- 
ing and  chasing  about  for  hours. 

The  icalh  is  the  easiest  gait  for  the  rider,  and  the  natural  gait  of  the 
horse ;  it  should  be  at  the  rate  of  about  120  steps  per  minute. 

The  trot  is  the  most  lasting  pace  of  the  horse,  but  the  hardest  for  the 
rider ;  as  it  does  much  towards  giving  a  good  seat,  the  men  should  be 
much  exercised  at  it ;  the  common  trot  is  at  the  rate  of  about  250,  the 
trot  out  300  steps  per  minute. 

The  full  gallop  is  at  the  rate  of  500  steps  per  minute )  the  hand  gallop 
somewhat  slower. 

The  charge  is  at  the  rate  of  about  600  steps  per  minute. 

SWIMMING. 

Since  it  is  often  necessary  for  light  troops  to  swim  their  horses,  they 
should  be  taught  beforehand  to  throw  the  carbine  over  the  shoulder,  to 
allow  the  curb-reins  to  hang  loosely,  and  to  guide  the  horse  by  the  snaffle, 
not  straight  across  the  stream,  but  a  little  against  the  current. 

The  rider  must  grasp  the  mane,  and  never  look  at  the  water,  but  at  the 
bank,  lest  he  become  giddy. 

In  the  event  of  being  swept  from  the  saddle,  he  can  still  keep  above 
water  by  keeping  hold  of  the  mane;  if  he  loses  this  advantage,  he  must 
endeavor  to  seize  the  horse's  tail,  and  allow  the  animal  to  take  him  ashore. 


320 


THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 
The  Division. 


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AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY.  321 

The  figure  on  page  320  shows  the  formation  of  a  division  of  2  squadrons 
in  line,  with  the  posts  of  all  the  ojfficers  and  non-commissioned  officers. 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  no  interval  between  the  squadrons, 
and  that  the  officers,  with  the  exception  of  the  file-closers,  are  in  the 
front  rank.  In  the  difi'crent  formations  in  column  they  retain  their  places 
in  the  ranks.  The  field  officer  coipmanding  the  division,  accompanied  by 
a  trumpeter,  is  usually  at  a  suitable  distance  in  front  of  the  centre,  but 
may  move  wherever  he  deems  best. 

The  interval  between  divisions  is  18  paces. 

The  files  are  told  ofi"  by  fours,  the  column  by  fours  being  much  em- 
ployed ;  they  also  form  column  by  twos,  half  platoons,  platoons,  half 
squadrons,  half  divisions,  and  divisions. 

The  front  of  a  column  of  twos,  &c.,  is  increased  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  pursued  in  the  Russian  tactics. 

The  column  by  half  squadrons,  and  the  column  doubled  on  the  centre 
half  squadron,  are  the  usual  columns  of  manceuvre. 

Columns  are  deployed  by  obliquing  at  the  gallop ',  in  the  oblique  each 
man  brings  his  horse's  head  behind  his  neighbor's  knee. 

The  order  of  battle  of  a  regiment  of  heavy  cavalry  is  a  deployed  line ; 
the  same  formation  is  used  when  they  are  exposed  to  a  heavy  fire  of 
artillery. 

If  a  regiment  of  light  cavalry  forms  part  of  a  large  body  of  troops,  all 
four  of  its  divisions  are  deployed  in  the  order  of  battle,  or  when  exposed 
to  a  heavy  artillery  fire ;  if  the  regiment  is  by  itself,  only  three  of  its 
divisions  compose  the  line  of  battle,  the  4th  being  held  in  reserve,  in 
column,  500  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre. 

A  regiment  of  any  kind,  if  not  about  to  charge  at  once,  or  not  under 
the  fire  of  artillery,  is  formed  in  line  of  columns. 

It  being  supposed  that  heavy  cavalry  is  never  out  of  reach  of  the 
support  of  other  troops,  the  order  of  battle  of  a  brigade  of  such  cavalry 
is,  with  all  its  divisions  deployed  in  one  line. 

The  order  of  battle  of  a  brigade  of  light  cavalry  is,  one  regiment  with 
all  its  divisions  deployed  in  line,  the  other  formed  in  line  of  columns, 
with  closed  intervals,  500  paces  behind  the  centre  of  the  front  line. 

Independently  of  the  reserves  above  mentioned,  every  body  of  cavalry 
which  charges  detaches,  at  the  moment  of  taking  the  trot,  a  portion  of 
its  own  force  to  secure  its  flanks  and  rear. 

When  a  single  division  charges,  the  flank  platoons  fall  out,  and  form,  in 
columns  by  platoons,  about  300  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre  j  the  captains 
on  the  flanks  close  in  on  the  charging  platoons ;  their  whole  duty  is  to 
watch  and  protect  the  flanks  of  the  charging  body. 

When  a  regiment  charges,  the  flank  squadrons  act  in  the  same  manner, 
but  each  squadron  remains  behind  the  flank  to  which  it  belongs. 


322  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

In  the  charge  of  a  brigade  of  heavy  cavalry,  the  flank  divisions  fall 
out,  and  form  in  column  by  half  squadrons  behind  the  flanks  of  the 
line. 

In  the  manoeuvres  of  large  bodies  of  cavalry,  the  Austrians  form  them 
in  one  line,  throwing  in  advance  the  artillery,  and  a  few  squadrons, 
intended  to  make  false  attacks,  and  to  clear  the  way  for  the  main  body : 
their  reason  for  this  is,  that  if  the  1st  line  is  broken  it  is  very  apt  to 
carry  the  2d  with  it. 

DOUBLE   COLUMNS. 

A  regiment  of  4  divisions  forms  double  column  at  full  distance  on  the 
left  half  squadron  of  the  2d  division,  and  the  right  half  squadron  of  the 
3d  division,  without  closing  the  interval  between  these  divisions;  thus 
the  1st  and  2d  divisions  are  each  in  column  left  in  front,  the  3d  and  4th 
right  in  front. 

A  brigade  forms  double  column,  at  half  squadron  distance,  on  the  left 
half  squadron  of  the  1st  regiment,  and  the  right  half  squadron  of  the 
2d ;  the  1st  regiment  being  thus  formed  in  column  left  in  front,  the  2d 
right  in  front ;  the  interval  between  the  regiments  is  not  closed. 

ARMS   AND   ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Hussars. — Sabre,  pistol,  and  carbine. 

Lancers. — Lance,  sabre,  and  two  pistols;  16  men  in  each  squadron 
have  a  carbine  in  the  place  of  one  of  the  pistols. 

Cuirassiers. — Sabre  and  two  pistols ;  16  men  in  each  squadron  carry  a 
carbine  instead  of  one  of  the  pistols ;  a  metallic  helmet  and  breast-plate, 
no  back-piece. 

Dragoons. — Sabre,  pistol,  and  carbine;  metallic  helmet. 

The  light- cavalry  sabre  has  a  blade  about  32  inches  long,  and  not  much 
curved;  the  scabbard  and  guard  of  steel. 

It  is  rather  heavy,  and  not  particularly  well  balanced. 

The  heavy-cavalry  sabre  is  somewhat  longer  and  straighter. 

The  lance  has  a  point  8  inches  long  above  the  knob ;  two  iron  straps 
extend  some  3  feet  down  the  shaft,  which  is  about  9  feet  long ;  the  butt 
tipped  with  iron ;  pennon  black  and  yellow ;  the  ordinary  lance-sling. 

The  ordinary  carbine  and  pistol  present  nothing  remarkable ;  the  pistol 
has  no  strap  to  the  butt. 

The  pistol-carbine  has  been  introduced,  and  will  probably  supplant  the 
old  firearms.  It  is  a  long  single-barrel  pistol,  with  a  carbine-stock, 
which  is  attached  by  two  spring  catches,  so  that  it  may  be  used  either  as 
a  pistol  or  carbine;  the  stock,  when  detached,  is  carried  in  one  of  the 
holsters. 

The  barrel  of  this  weapon  is  rifled,  with  4  shallow  grooves,  having  | 


AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY.  323 

of  a  trim,  and  is  10 J  inches  long;  it  tas  the  same  calibre  and  lock  as 
the  new-pattern  infantry  musket,  which  does  not  differ  materially  from 
our  own  last  model. 

The  sabre-belt  is  a  plain  leather  waist-belt,  with  two  slings,  the  shorter 
of  which  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened  by  means  of  a  buckle ;  when 
the  man  is  mounted,  the  length  of  this  sling  is  such  that  the  pommel  of 
the  sabre  hangs  about  1  inch  below  the  waist-belt;  on  foot  it  is  shortened, 
so  that  the  sabre  may  not  drag  upon  the  ground.  The  belt  fastens  with 
an  Qf^  hook  for  the  officers,  with  a  buckle  for  the  men. 

The  carbine-sling  is  like  our  own ;  the  pistol,  or  carbine,  rammer  is 
attached  to  a  strap  sewed  to  this  sling. 

The  carbine  is  always  carried  on  the  sling,  never  being  put  in  a  boot 
nor  attached  to  the  saddle. 

The  cartridge-box  is  of  plain  black  leather,  and  slung  to  an  ordinary 
shoulder-belt;  it  contains  24  rounds,  and  has  at  one  end  a  small  com- 
partment for  cleaning-utensils. 

The  sabre-knot  is  flat,  and  of  leather. 

In  the  field  the  sabres  are  first  ground,  and  afterwards  whetted  every 
two  or  three  weeks.  I  was  informed  that  although  the  steel  scabbard 
dulls  the  sabre  it  is  regarded  as  being,  on  the  whole,  better  than  wood, 
as  not  being  so  hable  to  injury  by  fire,  kicks,  &c. 

In  time  of  war  the  lance-points  are  kept  sharp  by  filing.  The  firearms 
are  only  used  on  guard,  vedette,  &c.,  to  give  the  alarm,  it  being  taken 
as  a  maxim  to  trust  only  to  the  steel.  There  were  several  instances 
during  the  Hungarian  war  when  the  Hungarian  hussars  stopped  to  fire; 
the  result  invariably  was  that  they  were  ridden  over  by  the  lancers. 

Many  of  the  officers  think  that  the  sabre  should  be  more  curved,  as 
ttey  prefer  cutting  to  pointing. 

It  is  a  well-recognized  principle  that  a  dull  sabre  is  entirely  useless. 

When  lancers  use  the  sabre,  they  rest  the  lance  on  the  left  arm. 

No  pains  are  spared  to  perfect  the  men  in  the  use  of  their  weapons ; 
for  they  regard  this  and  individual  horsemanship  as  the  most  important 
qualifications  of  the  cavalry  soldier. 

The  hussars  wear  a  sabretasche  attached  to  the  waist-belt. 

HORSE  EQUIPMENTS. 

The  Hungarian  saddle  is  used  in  most  regiments. 

The  figure  on  page  324  represents  a  side  view  of  that  saddle. 

It  is  of  hard  wood,  entirely  uncovered,  and  consists  of  the  hars  (c),  the 
front  fork  (a),  the  rear  fork  (6),  and  the  saddle-seat  or  straining-strap 
(cQ.  The  ends  of  the  forks  (e,  e)  are  let  into  mortises  in  the  bars,  and 
secured  by  raw-hide  thongs  passing  through  mortises  Q),  -p). 

The  saddle-seat,  or  straining-leather,  is  a  stout  strap  of  leather,  frx)m 


324 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


Ill  to  13J  inclies  long,  4|  inches  broad  at  tlie  hind  fork,  3|  to  4  in  the 
middle,  2 i  to  3  at  the  front  fork. 

It  is  secured  to  the  front  fork  by  4  flat-headed  nails,  a  strip  of  leather 
being  first  laid  over  the  end  of  the  strap,  as  seen  at  /. 

As  the  greatest  strain  comes  upon  its  junction  with  the  hind  fork,  it  is 
secured  to  it  differently.  At  each  angle  of  the  strap  a  stout  thong  is  left 
when  cutting  it  out;  this  thong  is  passed  around  the  neck  of  the  fork, 
and  secured  by  a  nail  in  rear ;  5  flat-h^ded  nails  are  then  driven  through 
the  strap  into  the  fork;  under  the  head  of  each  nail  a  round  piece  of 
leather  is  placed,  to  prevent  the  strap  from  being  cut  or  worn;  /'  shows 
this  arrangement. 


The  strap  is  attached  to  the  bars  by  raw-hide  thongs  drawn  tight,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  forks  are  strengthened  by  light  iron  plates 
nailed  to  the  front  of  the  front  fork  and  the  rear  of  the  hind  fork. 

The  girth  is  attached  to  the  bars  by  thongs  passing  through  the  holes 
(^).  The  stirrup-leathers  pass  through  the  mortises  (/i)  and  in  the  notch 
(m),  a  groove  being  cut  in  the  under  surface  of  the  bar  to  receive  the 
leather.  The  holes  (i)  are  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  the  straps  which 
secure  the  holsters ;  those  at  h  for  attaching  the  crupper. .  Near  the  upper 
end  of  each  fork  is  a  mortise;  that  in  the  front  fork  to  receive  the  cloak- 
strap,  that  in  the  rear  fork  to  r.eceive  the  valise-strap. 

On  the*^front  end  of  the  right  bar  is  the  name  of  the  horse;  on  the  left 
bar  is  the  number  of  the  horse,  {e.g.  14,)  and  the  government  brand. 

The  girth  is  of  leather,  3|  inches  broad,  and  fastens  by  a  large  buckle 
on  the  left  side. 

Crupper  and  breast-strap  present  nothing  unusual. 


AUSTRIAN   CAVALRY.  325 

Tlie  blanket  generally  used  is  a  common  white  one,  folded  thrice 
lengthwise,  and  four  times  in  the  other  direction. 

A  thick  felt  saddle-cloth,  of  one  thickness,  is  used  in  the  riding-schools, 
and  is  spoken  of  in  the  highest  terms. 

The  men  sometimes  place  a  straw  mat  under  the  blanket 

Four  sizes  of  saddles  are  issued  to  the  light  cavalry;  six  to  the  heavy. 

The  surcingle  is  of  black  leather,  and  is  fasteued  in  the  Mexican  style 
by  a  thong  and  rings. 

The  stirrups  are  of  steel,  with  a  large,  round,  flat  bottom,  and  a  flat, 
thin,  and  deep  arch;  in  winter  a  little  mat  of  straw  is  tied  to  the  bottom 
of  the  stirrup,  to  protect  the  feet  against  the  cold. 

One  shoe-pouch,  of  black  leather,  is  carried  attached  to  the  right  side 
of  the  rear  fork;  it  contains  2  shoes  and  32  nails;  the  nails  are  carried 
stuck  in  a  species  of  circular  pin-cushion  made  of  plaited  straw. 

Lance-boot,  small,  and  of  leather;  one  on  each  stirrup  of  lancers. 

The  two  holsters  are  strapped  to  the  saddle;  two  slits  in  the  schabraque, 
which  may  be  closed  by  buckles,  allow  the  pistols  to  be  drawn. 

Over  the  holsters  are  carried  two  bags  of  hair  cloth,  (called  pack-tor- 
nisters,)  about  1  foot  square.  In  the  left-hand  bag  are  carried :  razor, 
soap,  shaving-brush,  looking-glass  in  wooden  frame,  (4^"  X  3"?)  liair- 
comb,  beard-comb,  wax  for  the  moustache,  thread  of  various  colors,  case 
of  needles,  thimble,  white  wax,  patches  of  cloth,  buttons,  pantaloon- 
straps,  spare  rowels,  button-loops,  scissors,  a  curved  and  a  straight  awl, 
shoemakers'  thread  and  wax,  colophony,  sight-cover,  clothes-brush,  linen 
cap -cover,  iron  halter-ring  with  screw,  whetstone,  tooth-brush,  towel,  a 
pennon,  i  lb.  bread,  some  oats,  and  on  the  outside  a  forage-cap  and  tent-pin. 

In  the  right-hand  bag  are  carried :  curry-comb,  horse-brush,  a  couple 
of  cloths,  a  fleam,  paring-knife,  mane-comb,  five  brushes  for  removing 
the  mud,  waxing,  polishing,  coloring,  and  greasing  the  boots  and  horse 
equipment,  (each  brush  5"  X  2^",)  wajL  of  3  kinds,  cork  stopper,  box  of 
grease,  brick-dust,  iron-filings,  box  of  chalk,  button-stick,  brush  for  clean- 
ing brass,  rotten  stone,  pumice-stone,  screw-driver,  emery-stick,  patches 
of  cloth,  white  chalk,  bran,  knife,  fork,  spoon,  salt,  herbs,  handles  of  the 
kettle,  and  slippers. 

These,  with  a  few  other  articles  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  name, 
form  a  collection  that  would  do  credit  to  a  well-supplied  store,  but  seem 
to  be  rather  too  numerous  for  the  good  of  the  horse. 

The  valise  is  of  cloth,  and  is  strapped  to  the  cantle;  in  it  are  carried: 
1  pair  of  pants,  the  uniform  coat,  or  spencer,  the  overalls  when  not  in 
use,  2  shirts,  2  pairs  of  drawers,  1  pair  of  linen  cloths  for  wrapping  the  feet, 
1  pocket  handkerchief,  1  pair  of  gloves. 

The  schabraque  of  cloth,  with  black  lamb's-wool  seat. 

Four  men  in  each  platoon  carry  a  hatchet,  strapped  to  the  left  holster. 


326  THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

The  bridle  consists  of  a  crown-piece,  brow-band,  tbroat-latcb,  nose- 
band, 2  cheek-pieces,  and  2  pairs  of  reins;  the  front  is  ornamented  by 
diagonal  plaited  cords,  as  in  the  Russian  service;  the  cheek-pieces  are 
single  where  they  buckle  to  the  crown-piece,  and  are  split  below,  the 
longer  end  buckling  to  the  curb- bit,  the  shorter  connecting  with  the 
snaffle  by  a  chain  and  toggle. 

Both  bits  are  of  steel;, there  are  3  patterns  of  curbs,  of  different  degrees 
of  severity ;  the  curb-chain  is  also  of  steel. 

The  reins  buckle  to  ordinary  bit-rings. 

The  halter  has  a  plain  headstall,  and  a  rope  6'  long,  of  the  thickness 
of  the  little  finger;  by  attaching  the  snaffle-bit  it  becomes  a  watering-bridle. 

On  the  march,  the  halter  is  hung  on  the  left  side  of  the  pommel. 

Two  forage-ropes  are  carried,  hung  to  the  cantle. 

The  forage-sack  is  a  long  linen  bag,  with  a  longitudinal  opening  in  the 
middle ;  when  empty,  it  is  carried  on  the  pommel. 

On  the  march,  it  contains  the  oats  and  bread,  equally  divided  between 
the  two  ends ;  in  this  case  it  is  attached  to  the  rear  fork. 

The  hay  is  also  attached  to  the  rear  fork. 

The  overcoat  and  stable-frock  are  on  the  pommel. 

The  stable-blanket  girth  is  in  the  forage-sack. 

The  camp-kettle  is  carried  on  the  end  of  the  valise. 

The  picket-pins  for  light  cavalry  are  of  wood,  16"  long,  and  2"  in 
diameter ;  there  is  a  small  iron  ring  near  the  head  for  attaching  the  halter- 
rope  ;  each  man  carries  one  strapped  to  his  right  holster. 

The  picket-pins  of  the  heavy  cavalry  are  from  3^'  to  4'  long;  the  pin 
is  carried  in  a  boot,  attached  by  a  long  strap  to  the  right  holster,  the  butt 
end  being  secured  by  means  of  a  small  strap  from  the  surcingle. 

The  handle  of  the  curry-comb  unscrews. 

Bridles  are  issued  to  the  regiments  cut  out,  but  not  sewed  together. 

In  bivouac,  the  schabraque  is  used  to  cover  the  equipment. 

The  saddle-blanket  is  used  as  a  horse-cover  in  bivouac  during  bad 
weather,  and  in  garrison  in  the  daytime  only. 

The  equipments  and  arms  are  kept  in  the  corridors  of  the  quarters. 

Officers  use  the  English  saddle  in  the  riding-schools,  but  on  parade 
they  must  appear  with  the  Hungarian  tree,  which,  for  them,  is  covered 
with  leather. 

The  spurs  are  of  steel,  with  short  shanks,  and  are  screwed  permanently 
to  the  heel  of  the  boot 

Martingales  are  exceptionally  used, — for  horses  that  will  persist  in 
throwing  up  the  head  continually. 

The  men  usually  make  a  spare  schabraque  out  of  old  blankets :  this 
alone  is  used  at  drill ;  on  the  march  it  is  placed  on  top  of  the  other. 

The  saddle  and  equipment,  packed,  weigh  50  pounds. 


AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY.  327 

The  men  always  ride  on  the  curb,  passing  the  snaffle-reins  through  a 
loop  on  the  curb-reins,  and  allowing  them  to  hang  loose. 

CLOTHING. 

The  clothing  is  well  made,  and  of  ipost  excellent  material. 

In  the  issue  of  clothing,  each  article  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  a 
certain  number  of  portions,  and  every  man  is  allowed  a  certain  number 
of  portions  per  'annum,  which  he  may  draw  in  whatever  articles  he 
pleases.  The  clothing  is  issued  to  the  squadron  captains  either  made  up, 
without  being  trimmed,  or  merely  in  the  shape  of  the  raw  material, — just 
as  they  elect. 

The  system  of  portions  is  also  pursued  with  regard  to  the  horse  equip- 
ment, each  captain  drawing  the  number  allowed  his  squadron  in  whatever 
articles  happen  to  be  required. 

The  overcoat  for  all  the  cavalry  is  of  thick  white  cloth,  with"  sleeves 
and  a  long  cape;  it  is  made  very  long  and  loose. 

It  may  here  be  stated  thatthis  white  cloth,  of  which  the  uniform  coats 
of  the  infantry  are  also,  made,  is  stated  by  the  Austrian  officers  to  be 
excellent  for  the  field;  it  is  cleaned  by  washing  and  pipe-clay;  and  they 
seem  to  prefer  it  to  any  other  color. 

The  uniform  coat  is  a  short,  double-breasted  frock,  with  a  standing 
collar,  cut  away  in  front ;  the  lancers  alone  wear  epaulettes.  This  coat  is 
white  for  the  heavy  cavalry ;  dark  green  for  the  lancers ;  light  or  dark 
blue  for  the  hussars. 

A  spencer,  of  the  same  color  as  the  coat,  is  worn  by  all  the  cavalry  on 
certain  occasions ;  it  has  a  rolling  collar,  and  is  made  so  loose  that  it  may 
be  worn  over  the  uniform  coat. 

The  men  may  wear  a  vest  if  they  please. 

The  pants  are  rather  scant;  those  of  the  hussars  fit  perfectly  tight  to 
the  leg,  and  are  worn  under  the  boots ;  those  of  the  other  cavalry  are  re- 
enforced  with  leather  as  far  up  as  the  knee. 

For  the  heavy  cavalry  the  pants  are  light  blue,  with  a  red  cord;  for  the 
rest  of  the  cavalry  they  are  of  thef  color  of  the  coat. 

The  hussars  wear  boots  reaching  nearly  to  the  knee ;  the  rest  of  the 
cavalry  wear  half-boots.     No  spare  boots  are  carried  on  the  march. 

The  stable-frock,  neatly  made  of  coarse  white  linen,  serves  as  a  uniform 
coat  in  the  summer.  No  linen  pants  are  issued  or  worn.  For  service  in 
cold  weather,  gray  clolii  overalls  are  issued ;  they  button  all  the  way  up, 
both  on  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  legs.  On  the  march,  in  winter,  the 
men  wear  the  vest,  uniform  coat,  spencer,  cloak,  pants,  and  overalls. 

Socks  are  not  worn,  but  are  replaced  by  linen  bandages. 

Shirts  and  drawers  are  issued. 

The  forage-cap  is  the  same  for  all  the  cavalry ;  it  is  of  a  very  dark 

20 


328  THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

color,  and  is  somewhat  of  tlie  shape  of  the  French  kepis,  the  visor  being 
more  peaked,  and  the  top  larger. 

'  The  heavy  cavalry  wear  a  metallic  helmet,  with  a  high  crest.  The 
lancers  wear  the  well-known  Polish  lancer  hat.  The  hussars  wear  a 
cylindrical  shako,  with  a  peaked  visor. 

The  shoulders  being  bare,  except  for  the  lancers,  the  distinction  of 
grade  is  on  the  collar  and  cuffs.  For  officers,  it  is  as  follows :  a  2d  lieu- 
tenant has  one  star,  embroidered  in  gold  or  silver,  on*  each  side  of  the 
collar;  a  1st  lieutenant  has  two  stars;  a  captain,  three;  a  major  has  a 
narrow  strip  of  lace  on  the  cuffs  and  on  the  front  and  upper  edges  of  the 
collar;  also,  one  star  on  each  side  of  the  collar;  a  lieutenant-colonel  has 
the  same  lace,  and  two  stars ;  a  colonel,  the  same  lace,  and  three  stars ;  a 
general  of  brigade  has  the  cuff  and  collar  wholly  covered  with  plain  lace, 
and  one  star ;  a  general  of  division,  the  same  lace,  and  two  stars ;  a  full 
general,  the  same  lace,  and  three  stars ;  a  field-marshal  has  the  cuff  and 
collar  partly  covered  with  waving  lace,  and  has  three  stars. 

A  sergeant  has  three  stars  on  each  side  of  his  collar;  a  corporal  has' 
two ;  a  private  of  the  1st  class,  one. 

On  certain  occasions  the  officers  wear  silk  sashes,  colored  black  and 
yellow. 

The  stock,  for  both  officers  and  men,  has  a  flap,  like  the  Russian ;  the 
upper  edge  of  the  stock  is  white. 

Gloves,  or  mittens,  of  cloth,  are  issued  to  the  men. 


RATIONS. 

The  food  of  the  Austrian  soldier  consists  chiefly  of  bread  and  soup. 
From  I2  to  2  pounds  of  bread  is  the  daily  ration. 

An  allowance  of  from  5  to  10  cents  per  diem,  according  to  the  price 
of  food,  is  made  to  each  man,  to  enable  him  to  purchase  meat  (generally 
i  pound)  and  vegetables  for  soup. 

In  garrison,  they  have  soup  but  once  a 
day, — about  noon ;  in  camp,  they  also  have 
soup  soon  after  reveille. 

In  the  field,  hard  bread  is  generally  used. 
The  men  generally  make  their  breakfast 
and  supper  on  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  little 
glass  of  brandy  purchased  at  the  sutler's. 
• 

COOKING-UTENSILS. 

Kettles  of  the  annexed  shape  and  dimen- 
sions are  used  by  the  cavalry  in  garrison 
and  in  the  field.    The  handle  of  the  kettle  can  be  unhooked,  and  is  carried 
in  one  of  the  tornisters;  there  is  also  a -straight  handle  for  the  top,  so 


AUSTRIAN    CAVALRY.  ■  329 

that  it  may  be  used  as  a  frying-pan  j  this  handle,  also,  is  carried  in  the 
tornister. 

There  is  one  of  these  kettles  for  every. six  men. 

It  is  carried  by  that  man  of  the  mess  who  has  the  strongest  horse.  A 
linen  bag  is  put  over  the  valise,  to  keep  it  clean ;  then  the  kettle  is  put  on 
one  end,  the  cover  on  the  other;  a  second  ba^,  over  the  whole,  secures  the 
kettle. 

Each  man  has  a  spoon,  and  they  eat  in  common  out  of  the  kettle,  in 
the  field. 

In  the  field,  ovens  are  made  of  wattling,  mud,  and  straw,  as  described  in 
Laisnes's  Aide-M^moire  du  Grenie. 

HORSES. 

The  minimum  height  of  the  heavy-cavalry  horses  is  15  hands  1  inch. 
Do.  do.  light  do.  •  14      «      1     " 

Some  of  the  light-cavalry  horses  are  even  below  this  mark. 

Stallions. are  not  used  in  ranks.* 

The  horses  are  branded  on  the  left  hip  with  the  initials  of  the  emperor, 
and  of  the  province  where  purchased ;  on  the  left  side  of  the  neck,  under 
the  mane,  is  branded  the  number  of  the  horse.  They  are  purchased  by  a 
commission  of  cavalry  officers,  and  issued  to  the  regiments  as  required. 
If  the  captain  objects  to  receiving  a  horse,  he  appeals  to  the  colonel,  who 
decides. 

Horses  are  received  at  the  age  of  5  years,  as  a  general  rule ;  they  are 
broken  in  by  old  soldiers,  under  the  direction  of  the  2d  captain  of  the 
squadron. 

If  a  soldier  rides  the  same  horse  for  8  years,  he  receives  a  gratuity  of 
about  $7,  and  $2.50  for  every  additional  year.  If  he  rides  him  for  20 
years,  he  becomes  the  owner  of  the  horse  and  equipment,  and  may  take 
him  away  when  he  leaves  the  service. 

The  horses  of  the  same  squadron  are  not  necessarily  of  the  same 
color. 

Lieutenants  and  2d  captains  are  allowed  one  government  horse  each, 
and  forage  for  two  private  horses ;  above  the  grade  of  2d  captain,  officers 
must  own  their  own  horses.  If  an  officer  allowed  a  government  horse  uses 
him  for  8  years,  he  becomes  the  property  of  the  officer. 

A  colonel  is  allowed  forage  for  6  horses  in  peace,  for  7  in  campaign. 

A  lieutenant-colonel  or  major  is  allowed  forage  for  5  horses  in  peace,  for 
6  in  campaign. 

A  first  captain  is  allowed  forage  for  4  horses  in  peace,  for  5  in  campaign. 

A  second  captain  is  allowed  forage  for  3  horses  in  peace,  for  4  in  cam- 
paign. 

A  lieutenant  is  allowed  forage  for  3  horses  in  peace,  for  3  in  campaign. 


330  THE   ARMIES  OF   EUROPE. 

For  a  certain  proportion  of  these  horses  commutation  for  forage  may  be 
drawn,  although  fhe  officer  does  not  actually  possess  the  horses. 

In  addition  to  the  allowance  qf  forage,  a  certain  monthly  allowance  in 
money  is  given  to  assist  the  officer  in  keeping  on  hand  the  proper  number 
of  horses ;  this  allowance  is  as  follows : 

For  a  colonel,  about  8 10.  • 

For  a  lieutenant-colonel  or  major,  about  $8.  » 

For  a  1st  captain,  about  $6.50.  - 

For  a  2d  captain,  about  $4. 

For  a  lieutenant,  about  $2.50. 

Very  few  of  the  horses  used  in  the  army  come  from  the  government 
breeding-establishments,  these  consisting  mainly  of  good  stallions,  and 
having  for  their  object  the  improvement  of  the  breed  in  the  country. 

The  heavy-cavalry  horses  are  principally  from  the  G  erman  provinces ; 
they  are  of  fine  appearance,  but  generally  wanting  in  endurance,  being 
often  long-legged  and  narrow-chested. 

The  light-cavalry  horses  are  excellent;  they  are  of  fine  appearance, 
active,  hardy,  intelligent,  and  seldom  vicious.  They  are  mostly  from 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Poland.  Large  numbers  are  imported  from 
Bussia. 

The  average  price  of  the  cuirassier  horses  is  $80. 
Do.  do.  dragoon  "         65. 

Do.  do.  light-cavalry  "  56. 

FORAGE. 

The  ration  of  a  heavy-cavalry  horse  is  6  pounds  of  oats,  10  pounds  of  hay, 
2  pounds  of  straw ;  for  a  light-cavalry  horse  it  is  6  pounds  of  oats,  8  pounds 
of  hay,  2  pounds  of  straw. 

Five  days'  rations  are  carried  on  the  march. 

The  hay  is  twisted  into  a  rope,  and  then  coiled  into  a  circle ;  2  men  are 
needed  to  twist  it  in  different  directions,  first  wetting  it  a  little. 

In  barracks  there  are  3  equal  feeds  each  day;  one  at  reveille,  another  at 
11  J,  the  last  at  dark.    ' 

The  horses  are  watered  3  times  a  day. 

As  a  general  thing,  the  horses  are  not  fed  during  a  march. 

In  the  field,  sickles  are  carried. 

The  ration  of  straw  mentioned  above  is  for  the  litter. 

STABLES,  AND  STABLE-MANAGEMENT. 

The  variations  in  the  plan  and  arrangements  of  the  stables  are  very 
great.  In  some  there  is  a  single  passage-way,  with  a  row  of  stalls  on  one 
side  only;  in  others,  a  long  hall,  with  a  row  of  stalls  on  each  side;  in 
another,  two  halls,  with  two  rows  of  stalls  on  each  side  of  each  hall. 


AUSTRIAN   CAVALRY.  331 

Some  are  for  "8  horses,  others  for  16 ;  others,  again,  for  200. 

In  some,  the  mangers  are  of  wood ;  in  others,  of  wood,  lined  with  iron ; 
in  others,  of  stone ;  some  of  these  mangers  being  continuous,  others  for  a 
single  horse.' 

The  hay-racks  are  generally  of  iron;  sometimes  a  lack  for  each  horse, 
in  other  cases  one  long  rack  for  many  stalls. 

Single  stone  mangers,  and  iron  racks,  seem  to  be  the  best. 

In  Vienna  the  stalls  are  floored  with  plank,  the  head  of  the  stall  being 
of  clay,  that  the  fore-feet  may  rest  upon  it ;  a  drain,  covered  with  movable 
boards,  runs  along  behind  each  row  of  stalls. 

In  Verona  there  are  stalls  paved  with  small,  round  paving-stones.  The 
passages  are  sometimes  paved  with  stones,  sometimes  with  wooden  blocks., 

Thfe  roof  is  supported  by  pillars.  The  stalls  are  separated  by  swinging 
bars ;  in  the  stables  for  ofi&cers'  horses,  cushions  are  suspended  from  these 
bars. 

There  is  a  shelf  over  the  rear  of  each  stall ;  a  hook,  or  pin,  on  each 
post. 
■  The  name  of  the  man  to  whom  the  horse  belongs  is  over  each  stall. 

As  the  quarters  are  usually  ov^r  the  stables,  the  racks  are  filled  from  be- 
low. The  stalls  are  very  large }  in  those  of  the  stables  of  the  12th  lancers, 
at  Vienna,  they  are  11'  long,  and  5'  4"  wide,  with  a  passage-way  of  9'. 

During  the  day  the  litter  is  generally  laid  on  racks,  under  sheds,  in 
the  yard;  in  the  stables  of  the  riding-schools,  the  litter  is  kept  down 
during  the  day. 

The  Stables  are  kept  in  good  order;  those  of  the  riding-schools  are 
patterns  of  neatness. 

No  equipments  are  kept  in  the  stables. 

The  stable-guard  consists  of  1  non-commissioned  officer  per  squadron, 
and  2  men  per  platoon ;  one  of  the  latter  must  always  be  awake. 

Whenever  any  officer  ^n  uniform  enters  a  stable,  the  man  on  duty  at 
once  reports  to  him  the  condition  of  affairs. 

In  some  of  the  stables  the  racks  for  drying  the  forage  are  of  iron,  with 
sheet-iron  roofs  over  them;  these  roofs  can  be  turned  up  when  the  sun 
is  out. 

Attached  to  one  stable  was  a  horse-l)ath,  6'  deep,  18'  wide,  30'  long  at 
bottom,  61'  long  at  top,  approached  by  a  ramp  at  each  end, — these  ramps 
15'  6"  long. 

Each  man  feeds  his  own  horse ;  he  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  stall,  and 
receives  from  the  non-commissioned  officer,  as  he  passes  down,  the  por- 
tion for  his  horse.  When  all  the  men  have  received  their  portions,  the 
non-commissioned  officer  reports  to  the  o$cer  of  the  day,  at  whose  com- 
mand the  men  place  the  food  in  the  manger  and  rack,  and  stand  by  their 
horses  while  feeding.  , 


332  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

DAILY  DUTY  IN    GARRISON. 

In  summer  and  winter,  reveille  is  at  from  5  o'clock  to  6  o'clock. 

At  reveille  the  men  put  on  their  pants  and  stable-frocks,  fold  up  their 
beds,  and  go  to  tha  stable,  one  man  remaining  in  ev6ry  room  to  police  it. 
They  then  rub  down  the  horses  with  straw,  remove  the  litter,  water  and 
feed,  clean  the  horse  with  the  brush  while  he  is  feeding. 

In  cleaning,  the  curry-comb  is  used  only  to  clean  the  brush :  it  is  never 
applied  to  the  horse. 

They  then  return  to  the  quarters,  wash,  dress,  and  take  their  breakfast, 
which  is  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  glass  of  brandy. 

At  about  8  o'clock  there  is  a  drill,  or  else  the  horses  are  taken  out  for 
exercise;  in  any  event,  the  horses  are  saddled,  that  the  men  may  have 
some  occupation,  and  keep  the  equipment  in  order.  When  the  drill  is 
over,  they  unbridle,  put  on  the  halter,  and  loosen  the  girths,  carry  the 
bridle  and  arms  to  the  quarters,  put  on  the  stable-frock,  return  to  the 
stable,  and  unsaddle. 

They  then  rub  the  horses  down  with  straw;  carry  the  saddles  to  the 
quarters;  clean  them,  as  well  as  the  bridfe,  arms,  &c. 

At  11^  is  the  second  feed. 

After  feeding  the  horses,  the  men  have  their  dinner. 

The  guard  and  picket  saddle  up,  and  get  ready  for  guard-mounting, 
which  is  at  12  J. 

The  rest  of  the  men  sleep,  or  do  what  they  please,  until  2  o'clock;  at 
which  hour  the  horses  are  cleai>ed  with  the  brush.  • 

Until  nearly  dark  the  men  are  then  at  school,  where  they  are  taught 
the  duties  of  patrols,  sentinels,  &c.,  the  names  of  the  officers,  &c.,  &c. 

About  dark  they  go  to  the  stables,  make  down  the  litters,  water  the 
horses,  take  off  the  blankets,  give  the  last  feed,  and  leave  the  horses 
quiet  with  the  stable-guard. 

They  then  return  to  the  quarters,  whence  they  may  be  absent  until  8 
o'clock,  unless  they  have  a  pass  for  a  longer  time. 

Must  be  in  bed  at  9  o'clock.  Before  going  to  bed  they  grease  their  boots, 
and  stick  them  in  the  pants,  so  as  to  be  ready  in  case  of  a  sudden  alarm. 

At  tattoo  and  reveille  the  roll-calls  are  by  platoon. 

A  picket  consisting  of  an  officer  and  10  men  is  always  ready  for  patrol 
duty;  their  horses  are  in  a  separate  stable,  saddled,  but  not  bridled. 

The  sergeants  and  corporals  do  not  clean  their  own  horses;  this  is  done 
by  the  dismounted  men. 

While  we  were  in  Vienna,  on  the  morning  of  the  9th  January,  at  6  A.M., 
the  12th  lancers  were  suddenly  alarmed;  in  40  minutes  the  regiment  was 
formed  in  marching-order,  baggage  packed,  platoons  told  off,  officers  at 
their  posts,  &c.     This  was  considered  sharp  work  for  quarters. 


AUSTRIAN   CAVALRY.  333 

The  whole  garrison  was  alarmed  at  the  same  moment;  this  is  done, 
not  unfrequently,  by  the  emperor. 

QUARTERS. 

The  quarters  are  generally  over  the  stables. 

The  rooms  open  upon  a  corridor;  about  20  men  are  in  each  room. 

The  sergeants  have  a  separate  room ;  the  corporals  are  with  the  men 
of  their  platoons. 

Each  man  has  an  irob  bedstead,  a  bed-sack  filled  with  straw,  (which  is 
renewed  every  three  months,)  a  straw  pillow,  and  2  blankets :  these  arti- 
cles of  bedding  all  belong  to  the  barrack^  and  not  to  the  man;  they  are 
under  the  charge  of  a  barrack-master. 

The  valise,  tornisters,  and  cleaning-utensils  are  kept  in  the  quarters. 

The  clothes  are  either  iung  upon  pins  at  the  head  of  the  bed,  or  are 
on  a  shelf.  ^ 

The  name  of  each  man  is  over  his  bed. 

In  every  room  are  tables  and  benches  for  messing. 

The  arms  and  equipments  are  kept  in  the  corridors,  on  racks  and 
stands;  the  carbines  are  hung  on  a  pin  by  the  guard,  muzzles  down. 

Some  of  the  officers  are  required  to  lodge  in  the  barrack;  the  others 
have  quarters  elsewhere,  and  receive  a  commutation. 

DUTIES    OF   OFFICERS,  ETC. 

The  1st  captain  is  responsible  for  the  arms,  horses,  &c. ;  he  makes 
returns  to  the  colonel  twice  each  year.  He  is  the  only  squadron  officer 
who  can  inflict  punishment, — except  on  detachment,  when  the  detached 
officer  has  equal  powers.  He  may  confine  men  for  48  hours  in  irons;  he 
can  inflict  20  lashes;  but  if  he  abuses  his  power  the  colonel  may  pro- 
hibit him  from  exercising  it.  . 

The  2d  captain  is  in  general  charge  of  the  2d  half  squadron,  but  is 
more  especially  charged  with  the  instruction  of  recruits  and  young  horses. 

Each  lieutenant  is  in  charge  of  a  platoon,  and  is  responsible  for  its 
order,  cleanliness,  &c.;  he  can  inflict  no  punishment;  he  forms  part  of 
his  platoon,  and  always" accompanies  it  on  detachment,  drill,  &c. 

The  1st  sergeant  has  duties  similar  to  those  of  the  same  grade  in  the 
United  States  service;  he  is  in  charge  of  the  papers,  military  duties, 
details,  &c. 

The  2d  sergeant  is  more  particularly  under  the  control  of  the  2d  cap- 
tain, in  charge  of  the  recruits  and  young  horses. 

The  corporals  are  divided  equally  among  the  platoons,  and  are  in 
charge  of  the  rooms,  guards,  &c.,  &c. 

Muster-rolls  are  sent  in  by  the  captain  every  month ;  they  are  checkedi 
and  countersigned  by  the  paymaster,  adjutant,  and  intendant. 


334  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

The  men  are  paid  every  five  days. 

Regular  musters  are  held  only  once  in  each  year,  and  not  always  so 
often.  They  are  made  by  the  general  of  brigade  and  a  military  commis- 
sary ;  at  these  the  roll  is  called,  the  horses  counted,  &c. 

MARCHES,  ETC. 
Marches  are  condudted  at  the  rate  of  from  3  to  4  miles  per  hour,  (for 
the  most  part  at  a  walk,)  and  usually  last  about  5  hours. 

Over  very  rough  or  steep  ground  the  horses  are  generally  led. 
The  hussars  march  long  distances  at  the  trot,  and  know  no  obstacles ; 
rivers,  marshes,  mountains,  and  obstructed  ground,  check  their  course 
but  little. 

About  half  an  hour  after  startmg,  a  short  halt  is  made,  to  allow  the 
horses  to  urinate  j  only  those  men  dismount  whose  girths  need  tighten- 
ing. At  the^jniddle  of  the  march  a  halt  of  half  an  hour  is  made. 
The  men  are  severely  punished  for  not  girthing  tight. 
As  already  remarked,  the  men  ride  on  the  •  curb  on  the  march,  the 
snaffle-reins  hanging  free.  The  stirrup-leathers  are  of  such  a  length 
that,  the  leg  hanging  naturally,  the  bottom  of  the  stirrup  shall  be  •!" 
above  the  spur;  with  hard-gaited  horses  the  stirrups  are  somewhat 
shorter. 

No  tents  are  carried  in  the  field ;  the  men  hut  themselves. 
The  officers  seldom  carry  any  mess-apparatus,  but  partake  of  the  food 
of  the  jnen. 

The  following  wagons,  &c.,  are  allowed  in  campaign : 

For  each  field  officer,  1  wagon 5  wagons. 

For  medicines 1       " 

Regimental  chest 1       " 

In  each  division,  for  spare  shoes,  saddles,  &c.,  1  wagon     4       " 
Forge 1       " 

Total  of  wagons  for  a  regiment  of  8  squadrons....  12      •"  . 
Each  squadron  officer  is  allowed  forage  for  1  pack-horse ;  on  this  he 
places  a  small  portmanteau,  or  pair  of  hair  bags.    .But  these  pack-animals 
are  often  ordered  to  be  left  in  depot;  and  in  this  case  the  baggage  is  put 
on  one  of  the  spare  horses. 

Each  officer's  servant  usually  rides  one  of  his  master's  spare  horses. 
The  weight  carried  by  a  light-cavalry  horse  in  the  field  is  : 

"Weight  of  saddle  and  equipment .*. 60  pounds. 

5  days'  hay  (8  pounds  for  light  cavalry) 40       " 

5  days'  oats  (at  6  pounds) 30       " 

5  days' bread  (at  2  pounds) 10       " 

Load  of  light-cavalry  horse ItO       " 


AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY.  335 

This  is  exclusiye  of  the  arms,  ammmiitioii,  and  rider. 
Before  going  into  action,  the  men  generally  manage  to  throw  away  the 
hay,  and  "bleed"  the  forage-bags. 

SCHOOL  OF  EQUITATION. 

The  central  cavalry  school  of  equitation  is  at  Vienna.  A  lieutenant 
from  every'regiment  of  cavalry  is  sent  thither, — 40  in  all. 

Each  ofl&cer  brings  a  soldier  with  him  to  take  care  of  his  horses;  but 
this  soldier  receives  no  instruction.  The  practice  of  instructing  non- 
commissioned officers  has  been  abandoned.  The  officer  brings  with  him 
his  own  "imperial  service  horse"  and  that  of  the  soldier. 

There  are  also  about  100  horses  belonging  to  the  school,  with 'grooms 
especially  for  them. 

The  course  of  instruction  lasts  for  2  years ;  one-half  of  the  officers  are 
changed  every  year. 

The  instruction  consists  of  equitation,  stable-duty,  fencing,  and  the 
veterinary  art ;  for  the  latter  they  attend  the  veterinary  school. 

They  ride  several  hours  each  day,  almost  always  using  the  English 
saddle,  and  frequently  leaping,  &c.,  without  stirrups  or  girths. 

They  become  excellent  riders,  and  manage  their  horses  well. 

A  good  anatomical  museum  is  attached  to  the  school;  it  contains 
natural  preparations,  the  Augoux  models,  plates,  &c. 

There  is  also  a  good  fencing-room. 

There  are  two  fine  riding-halls ;  one  is  238'  by  72',  the  other  175' 
by  56'.    . 

The  floor  is  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand. 

The  stables  are  excellent ;  one,  in  particular,  is  probably  the  finest  in 
the  world. 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  well  to  give  the  dimensions  of  the  riding- 
halls  and  stables  of  the  school  for  artillery  and  engineers,  now  in  course 
of  construction  at  Wiener  Neustadt,  near  Vienna,  as  they  are  regarded 
as  models. 

The  riding-hall  is  to  be  288'  long,  62'  wide,  and  27'  high. 

The  stables  are  to  be  for  144  horses ;  the  roof  arched,  with  2  stalls 
under  each  arch.  The  ventilation  and  light  over  the  stalls  in  the  roof; 
the  forage  and  equipment  to  be  kept  in  rooms  over  the  corridor. 

The  corridor  is  8'  wide;  stalls,  12' X  5',  and  15'  high;  mangers,  of 
marble,  3'  X  1',  and  3'  8"  above  the  floor;  the  racks,  5'  2"  above  the 
floor,  and  1'  6"  high ;  bottom  of  manger,  2'  from  the  floor. 

Open  riding-grouifds  are  attached  to  every  cavalry  barrack. 


336  •  THE   ARMIES   OF   EUROPE. 


THE   VETERINARY    SCHOOL. 

.  This  is  at  Vienna.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  instruct  veterinary  surgeons 
for  the. army. 

The  full  course  is  of  3  years ;  for  certain  purposes,  2  years ;  for  ordi- 
nary farriers,  merely  to  learn  to  shoe  the  horse,  6  months. 

It  is  much  on  the  principle  of  that  at  Berlin,  but  is  more  extensive, 
and  better  organized. 

The  collections  of  natural  history  and  comparative  anatomy  are  most 
excellent  J  they  embrace  not  only  stuffed  specimens  of  many  animals, 
birds,  and  fishes,  skeletons,  bones,  jaws,  teeth,  &c.,  but  also  admirable 
preparations  of  the  muscles  of  the  different  parts  of  the  horse,  the  veins, 
arteries,  &c., — diseased,  as  well  as  sound. 

There  is  a  fine  collection  of  instruments  for  operations  on  the  eye,  ear, 
urinary  organs,  &c.,  as  well  as  for  amputations,  docking,  bleeding,  &c. 

For  bleeding  in  the  neck,  the  spring  lancet  is  used. 

A  laboratory,  lecture-rooms,  dissecting-rooms,  rooms  for  the  injection 
of  preparations,  &c.,  are  attached  to  the  institution. 

The  apothecary  establishment  is  very  complete  and  well  arranged;  the 
number  of  remedies  in  the  pharmacopoeia  is  reduced  to  160. 

The  stables  are  rooms  opening  upon  a  corridor;  some  of  these  rooms 
are  for  single  horses,  others  for  two,  four,  six,  and  ten. 

They  are  clean,  but  hot  and  badly  ventilated. 

The  animals  affected  with  internal  diseases  are  in  different  stables  from 
those  troubled  with  external  diseases;  glandered  horses  are  kept  in  separate 
stables. 

Grlanders  is  regarded  as  incurable;  they  keep  the  horse  long  enough  to 
be  certain  that  he  is  really  afilicted  with  that  disease,  and  then  kill  him. 

In  1854,  two  of  the  students  died  of  glanders;  they  died  in  about  8 
months  after  being  inoculated,  the  first  symptom  being  an  incurable  ulcer 
on  the  hand. 

They  never  cauterize  for  the  lampass,  but  administer  purgatives  and 
green  food,  and  bleed  by  drawing  the  lancet  between  the  bars. 

The  forges,  tools,  and  shoes  are  very  rough  and  clumsy. 

Formerly  very  complicated  machinery  was  used  in  shoeing  the  horse, 
but  they  have  now  learned  that  the  very  moderate  number  of  3  men  will 
suffice,  without  artificial  aids :  one  man,  by  the  assistance  of  a  cavesson 
and  mesmerism,  holds  and  controls  the  horse,  another  holds  his  foot,  a  third 
puts  on  the  shoe.  It  is  possible  that  they  may  learn  to  dispense  with  one 
or  two  of  these  assistants,  as  well  as  with  mesmerism* 

The  shoe  is  always  fitted  and  pUt  on  cold. 

There  are  usually  6  nails  in  each*  shoe. 

In  summer  the  shoe  is  plain,  with  neither  toes  nor  heels;  in  winter  it 


AUSTRIAN   CAVALRY.  337 

has  both.  Tor  the  horses  of  the  ofl&cers,  in  winter,  one  heel  is  firmly 
attached  to  the  shoe,  the  other  can  be  unscrewed ;  on  leaving  the  stable, 
the  blunt  movable  heel  is  replaced  by  a  pointed  one. 

The  men  pay  for  the  shoeing  of  their  horses;  a  very  small  daily  allow- 
ance is  given  them  to  cover  this  expenditure. 

The  greatest  possible  attention  is  paid  in  the  regiments  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  shoes;  it  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important 
points. 

At  the  veterinary  school,  dogs,  cows,  sheep,  &c.,  are  treated.  Sheep 
are  kept  here  to  be  inoculated  for  a  disease  quite  similar  in  its  phenomena 
to  the  small-pox;  the  animal  iS  inoculated  upon  the  bare  lower  surface  of 
the  tail,  the  matter  collected  from  the  pustules  and  distributed  among 
the  great  sheep-proprietors  of  the  country. 

This  disease  formerly  killed  off  some  40,000  per  annum  in  the  empire; 
now  scarcely  one  dies  of  it. 

This  veterinary  school  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  very  best  in  Europe,, 
and  is  well  worthy  of  imitation. 


VETERINARY   SURGEONS,   ETC. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  each  regiment  has  a  senior  veterinary 
surgeon;  each  squadron  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

The  first  has  the  rank  of  a  first  sergeant,  the  second  that  of  a  corporal. 

They  are  all  educated  at  the  veterinary  school,  and  are  either  the  chil- 
dren of  veterinaries,  or  else  well-conducted  soldiers  whose  original  pursuit 
was  that  of  a  horseshoer. 

They  generally  shoe  the  horses  themselves,  as  well  as  treat  their 
diseases;  they  always  instruct  three  or  four  good  men  in  the  squadron, 
who  act  as  their  assistants. 

The  pay  of  a  senior  veterinary  surgeon  is  about  812  per  month;  the 
squadron  veterinaries  receive  about  §9  per  month. 

Both  are  permitted  to  practise  upon  the  horses  of  civilians,  on  their 
own  account,  and  also  receive  a  small  additional  stipend  for  their  services 
in  treating  the  squadron  horses;  this  last  amounts  to  from  $9  to  81.0  per 
month. 

The  horses  are  shod  about  once  in  five  weeks. 

The  evening  before  a  horse  is  to  be  shod,  he  is  caused  to  stand  in  wet 
clay;  if  no  clay  is  to  be  had,  a  mixture  of  dung  and  mud  is  substituted, 
or  else  the  foot  is  wrapped  in  rags  filled  with  dung. 

The  effect  of  this  is  to  soften  the  hoof  and  fkcilitate  the  operation  of 
paring  and  shoeing;  it  is  represented  as  being  attended  with  the  most 
beneficial  effect. 

-Very  little  of  the  hoof  and  frog  is  cut  away. 


338  THE   ARMIES    OF  EUROPE. 

The  number  of  medicines  used  in  the  regiments  is  very  Smalt.  JSTadosy's 
"  Equitations-Studien/'  and  Professor  Kolls's  works,  contain  the  Austrian 
views  of  the  veterinary  art. 


GENERAL   REMARKS. 

The  imperfect  sketch  of  the  Austrian  cavalry  given  in  the  preceding 
pages  will  show  that,  as  might  have  been  expected,  it  presents  many 
things  well  worthy  of  imitation,  and  much  to  be.  avoided. 

The  foundation  of  the  efl&ciency -and  well-deserved  reputation  of  the 
Austrian  cavalry  would  seem  to  be  the  great  perfection  of  the  individual 
instruction  of  the  men :  without  this,  no  organization,  however  perfect  it 
maybe,  can  lead  to  good  results;  with  it,  the  defects  of  a  very  bad  organi- 
zation may  be  overcome  or  lost  sight  of. 

The  system  pursued  in  the  purchase  of  horses  is  good. 
.  The  manner  of  posting  the  officers  in  a  division  is  worthy  of  the  most 
attentive  consideration.  There  may  well  occur  exceptional  cases  in  which 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  officers  should  be  in  front  of  the  men 
to  lead  and  encourage  them  in  desperate  situations;  but  it  would  seem 
that  the  Austrians  have  good  reasons  for  placing  the  officers  in  the  ranks. 
They  say  that  since  the  officers  have,  as  a  general  rule,  perfect  control 
over,  their  horses,  they  will  keep  them  in  the  proper  direction,  and  thus 
prevent  the  men  from  opening  out,  the  charge  being  thus  rendered  com- 
pact and  effective :  they  state  that  this  formation  results  from  the  expe- 
rience of  actual  charges  upon  an  enemy.  The  general  features  of  their 
veterinary  system  might  be  followed  in  our  service  to  great  advantage. 

Their  system  of  depot  squadrons  is  good,  and  produces  good  results. 
The  cooking-utensils  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  end  in  view.  The 
tactical  unit  would  appear  to  be  entirely  .too  large  to  permit  the  great 
mobility  and  celerity  which  are  the  essential  conditions  of  the  success  of 
cavalry';  this  defect  is  probably  overcome  only  by  the  perfection  of  indivi- 
dual instruction. 

The  number  of  things  carried  by  the  men,  and  the  excessive  weight  of 
the  equipment,  seem  pernicious  and  absurd  in  the  extreme.  I  was  in- 
formed by  cavalry  officers  that  the  men  usually  manage  to  throw  away 
the  greater  part  of  their  load  before  many  days  passed  in  the  field. 

The  nujnber  of  non-commissioned  officers  is  too  small,  in  comparison 
with  the  number  of  privates. 

The  exercises  preliminary  to  the  instruction  in  equitation  are  worthy 
of  imitation ;  while  it  would  by  no  means  be  advisable  to  follow  blindly 
all  their  conditions  for  a  good  seat. 

The  articles  of  clothing  would  appear  to  be  altogether  too  bulky :  no 
doubt  the  comfort  of  the  man  is  a  very  important  consideration ;  but,  if 


AUSTRIAN   CAVALRY.  339 

that  object  is  gained  at  the  expense  of  the  efficiency  of  the  horse,  the  result 
cannot  be  doubtful. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  state  that  much  valuable  information  may  be 
deri);  ed  from  the  Cavalry  Tactics,  Nadosy's  "  Equitations-Stud  ien,"  Half- 
zensir's  "  Innern  Dienst  der  Cavallerie,"  and  other  works ;  those  men- 
tioned, are  in  the  possession  of  the  War  Department,  and  should,  by  all 
means,  be  consulted  by  any  officers  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  a  revised 
system  for  our  own  cavalry. 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


FRENCH  CAVALRY. 


The  French  cavalry  establishment  consists  of — 


1  squadron  of  "  Cent-Grardes/ 


6  regiments  of  the  guard. 


of  cuirassiers, 
of  dragoons. 


12  regiments  of  reserve  cavalry. 


of  lancers, 
of  chasseurs. 
1  of  guides,  (hussars.) 

1  squadron  of  gensdarmes. 

2  of  carbineers. 
10  of  cuirassiers. 


20 


,«,,,.  12  of  dragoons. 

regiments  01  the  hne.... •{    r>     n  ^ 

8  01  lancers. 


25  regiments  of  light  cavalry... 


12  of  chasseurs. 
9  of  hussars. 
4  of  African  chasseurs. 


•    3  regiments  of  spahis. 
9  remount  companies. 

1  cavalry  school,  at  Saumur.  « 

The  mounted  gensdarmes. 
Each  regiment  consists  of  6  squadrons,  with  the  exception  of  the 
African  chasseurs,  which,  during  the  late  war,  were  increased  to  8  squad- 
rons, of  which  4  remained  in  Africa  and  4  served  in  the  Crimea. 
In  time  of  war,  each  regiment  has  a  depot  squadron. 
The  duration  of  service  is  7. years. 
The  regulation  height  of  cavalry  soldiers  is  as  follows : 

Carbineers minimum,  5'.  10".4. 

Cuirassiers "  5'    9".2. 

Dragoons  and  lancers "  5'    8" 

Chasseurs  and  hussars "  5'    6". 8 

African  chasseurs "  5'    6".8 


imu 

m,  5'  10".4. 

i( 

5'    8".8. 

u 

5'    9".6. 

FRENCH   CAVALRY.  341 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  a  regiment  of  three  squadrons : 


The  staff  :  ^ 

Colonel 

Lieutenant-colonel 

Chiefs  of  squadrons  (fi«ld  ofl&cers) 

Major 

Captain  (instructor) 

Adjutants  (captains) a 

Treasurer  (captain) ." .', 

Clothing  officer  (captain) 

Assistant  treasurer  (sub-lieutenant) 

Standard-bearer  (sub-lieutenant) 

Senior  surgeon 

Assistant  surgeon 

Sub-assistant  surgeon 

Veterinary  of  the  first  class 

Total  commissioned  staff. 

The  non-commissioned  staff  : 

Adjutants  (sergeants) 

-Adjutant,  wagon-master  (sergeant) 

Assistant  veterinaries 

Chief  trumpeter  (sergeant) .•. 

Trumpeter  (corporal) 

Trumpeters  (for  the  depot  squadron) * 

Farriers  (for  the  depot  squadron) 

Total  non-^commissioned  staflf" .-. 

Platoon  out  of  banks  : 

First  clerk  of  treasurer  (sergeant) 

Sergeant  in  charge  of  clothing-magazine 

Sergeant  in  charge  of  stables ,... 

Sergeant»(  fencing-master) ^ 

Master  armorer,   master  tailor,  master  boot-maker 

(sergeants) 

Master  saddler  (sergeant) /. 

Quartermaster  of  the  staff  (sergeant) 

Second  clerk  of  treasurer  (corporal) 

Provosts  (corporals) 

Saddler  (corporal) 

Tailor  and  boot-maker  (corporals) 

Major's  clerk  (private) 

Third  clerk  of  treasurer  (private) 

Second  clerk  of  clothing  officer  (private) 

Attached  to  horse  hospital  (private) 

Armorers  (privates) 

Saddlers  (privates) 

Tailors  (privates') 

Boot-makers  (privates) 

Enfant  de  troupe 

The  number  of  tailors  and  boot-makers  varies  with  the 
effective  strength  of  the  regiment. 


IN  WAK. 

IN  PEACE. 

OQ 

OQ 

tt> 

O 

a 

^H 

a 

t-> 

o 

o 

^ 

a 

S 

a 

5 

1 

3 

4 

1 

3 

12 

3 

6 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

9 

3 

6 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

... 

... 

1 

1 

1 

18 

49 

17 

29 

3 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

... 

... 

3 

... 

... 

... 

13 

10 

8 

8 

1 

1 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

3 

3 

1 

... 

1 

1 

,,, 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

2 

... 

2 

1 

... 

1 

... 

2 

2 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

1 

... 

1 

... 

1 

... 

2 

... 

2 

... 

6 

6 

... 

14 

... 

14, 

... 

12 

"... 

12 

..*. 

1 

... 

1 

... 

54 

_:-i_ 

54 

... 

842 


THE    AKMIES    OF    EUROPE. 
TABLE .— Continued. 


Squadron  op  cavalry  of  reserve  : 

Captain  commanding 

Second  captain 

First  lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant 

Sub- lieutenants 


Total  commissioned  officers  of  a  squadron. 


Orderly  sergeant 

Sergeants 

Quartermaster  sergeant 

Quartermaster  corporal 

Corporals .• 

First-class  privates.... 

Second-class  privates,  {dismounted'. 

Farriers  (shoeing-smiths) 

Trumpeters 

Under  instruction  as  trumpeters 

infants  de  troupe 


Total  non-commissioned  and  privates ,.    174 


IN  WAR.      IN  PEACE 


18 


154 


1 
8 
1 
1 

16 

32 
88 

"3 
4 


151 


1 
6 
1 
1 

12 
32 
69 

2 
4 


128 


On  the  war  establishment,  each  squadron  of  cavalry  of  the  line  has  98 
privates  of  the  2d  class,  and  each  squadron  of  light  cavalry  has  108. 


IV  WAR. 

IN  PEACE. 

• 

© 
1^ 

0 

Strength  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry  of  reserve  : 

18 
13 
54 
48 
1,044 

49 
10 

"1O8 
924 

17 

8 

54 

42 

906 

29 

Non-commissioned  staflF. 

8 

Platoon  out  of  ranks • 

54 

Non-commissioned  officers,  privates,  &c 

768 

Total 

1,177 

1,091 

1,027 

859 

INSTRUCTION   AND   TACTICS. 


No  change  of  apy  importance  has  been  made  in  the  system  since  it  was 
adopted  as  the  basis  of  our  own;  it  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  remark 
upon  it. 


FRENCH    CAVALRY.  343 

ARMS  AND   ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Carbineers  and  cuirassiers. — Metallic  helmet,  back  and  breast  pieces, 
pistol,  and  sabre.  The  sabre  has  a  Montmorency  blade,  very  slightly  curved. 

•Dragowis. — Sabre,  pistol,  and  musket.  The  sabre  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  cuirassiers.  The  musket  has  no  bayonet;  barrel,  36"  long,  and 
weighs  7.9  pounds.  On  ordinary  marches,  on  parade,  &c.,  the  musket  is 
carried  with  the  hutt  in  a  boot,  attached  to  the  right  side  of  the  pommel ; 
this  boot  is  5"  deep,  6"  long,,  and  2f"  wide.  The  muzzle  of  the  musket 
rises  about  3"  above  and  behind  the  right  shoulder,  and  is  attached  to  the 
pommel  by  a  strap.  When  in  expectation  of  meeting  an  enemy,  the 
musket  is  slung  over  the  shoulder,  muzzle  up. 

Lancers. — Light-cavalry  sabre,  pistol,  lance,  musketoon.  It  has  been 
proposed  to'  abandon  the  musketoon  :  I  do  not  know  whether  that  has  be^n 
done  or  not.  • 

Chasseurs. — Dragoon  musket,  light-cavalry  sabre,  and  pistol. 
•     ^j/5sa/-s.— Musketoon,  light^cavalry  sabre,  and  pistol.     The  musketoon 
has  both  boot  and  sling. 

African  chasseurs. — Armed  as  the  other  chasseurs,  but  always  carry 
the  musket  slung  over  the  left  shoulder, — never  in  a  boot. 

Spahis. — Musket  and  pistol  is  for  the  African  chasseurs,  but  carry  the 
sabre  attached  to  the  saddle,  in  the  Mexican  fashion. 

Cent-Gardes  are  cuirassiers,  armed  with  a  pistol,  and  a  breech-loading 
carbine,  with  sabre  bayonet :  this  bayonet  is  a  very  long,  light,  and  nearly 
straight  sabre,  without  guard ;  alone,  it  is  an  excellent  sabre ;  when  fixed 
on  the  carbine,  it  may  be  used,  as  a  lance  when  mounted;  as  an" ordinary 
musket  and  bayonet  on  foot. 

In  all  the  cavalry,  the  pistol  is  attached  to  the  saddle  by  means  of  a 
strap  fastened  to  a  ring  in  the  butt. 

The  cartridge-box  has  a  shoulder-belt,  and  contains  20  rounds ;  the  men 
carry  spare  packages  of  cartridges  in  their  pouches,  or  wherever  may  be 
most  convenient. 

The  belts,  &c.,  are  quite  like  our  own ;  the  sabre-belt  fastens  with  an 

(X)  ^00^^- 

A  camp-hatchet  is  carried  by  the  corporals  and  Ist-class  privates. 

•       HORSE   EQUIPMENTS. 

Our  own  being  at  present  but  little  else  than  modifications  of  those 
generally  in  use  in  the  French  service,  it  is  only  necessary  to  describe 
those  of  the  African  chasseurs,  and  a  model  very  recently  adopted. 

The  saddle  of  the  African  chasseurs  is  a  plain  wooden  tree,  with  a  pad 

on  top,  and  no  skirts ;  the  model  not  unlike  our  own,  (the  Grimsley,)  but 

rather  lower  in  the  pommel  and  cantle. 

21 


344  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  girth  and  surcingle  are  of  leather;  stirrups  steel;  no  schabraque. 
Two  shoe-pouches  of  the  usual  kind,  for  2  shoes  and  32  nails  each,  at- 
tached to  the  hind  fork.     Nose-bag  of  hair  cloth. 

The  valise  is  replaced  by  canvas  saddle-bags,  re-enforced  with  leather. 
The  forage-bag  and  tente  d'abri  are  fastened  to  the  cantle. 

The  pistol  is  in  the  left  pouch ;  the  cloak  strapped  over  the  pouphes ; 
each  man  has  a  hatchet  in  his  right  pouch. 

A  common  blanket  is  placed  under  the  saddle. 

The  bridle  has  a  single  headstall  and  a  Spanish  bit,  (with  a  ring  around 
the  lower  jaw,)  the  curb-reins  attached  by  swivels,  the  snafl9.e-reins  to 
rings  on  the  same  bit;  the  bit  buckles  to  the  headstall. 

Instead  of  a  halter,  a  leather  collar  is  used. 

The  new  saddle  is  the  invention  of  Captain  Cogent,  director  of  the 
saddle-factory  ^t  Saumur. 

The'  tree  is  cut  out  of  a  single  piece  of  white  wood,  the  cantle  only 
being  glued  on ;  a  piece  of  walnut,  the  grain  running  across  the  tree,  is 
let  into  the  pommel,  and  a  thin  strip  veneered  upon  the  front  ends  of  the 
bars  ;  the. pommel  and  cantle  are  lower  than  in  the  old  model ;  the  whole 
is  covered  with  wet  raw  hide,  glued  on,  and  sewed  at  the  edges ;  no  iron 
bolts  or  fastenings  are  used. 

The  staples  for  the  stirrup-leathers  are  fastened  as  usual. 

The  most  important  feature  in  this  saddle  is  the  manner  of  arranging 
it  so  that  a  single  size  may  be  used  for  all  horses,  or  for  the  same  horses 
when  their  condition  changes. 

The  sketches  on  page  345  will  explain  the  manner  in  which  this  is 
effected.  Two  strips  of  cork,  about  4"  broad,  ^"  thick,  and  as  long  as 
the  bars  of  the  saddle,  are  bent  to  the  shape  of  the  under  surface  of  the 
bars;  to  give  them  this  shape,  they  are  glued  to  the  bars  before  the  tree 
is  covered  with  hide ;  they  are  removed  when  they  have  taken  a  perma- 
nent set,  trimmed,  and  covered. 

They  are  covered  with  thick  felt  on  the  si^e  towards  the  horse's  back, 
and  with  leather  on  the  side  towards  the  saddle ;  a  longitudinal  slit  being 
left  in  the  leather,  in  order  to  insert  strips  of  felt,  to  increase  the  thick- 
ness of  the  strips  when  necessary.  The  strips  are  attached  to  the  saddle 
by  means  of  small  pins  with  heads,  shown  in  figs.  A,  E,  and  F ;  these  are 
inserted  in  the  holes  in  the  iron  plates  G,  and  run  forward  into  the  slots ; 
the  pins  (0)  at  the  rear  end  of  the  strips  have  each  a  hole  through  the 
neck ;  the  small  keys  (M)  are  run  through  the  holes  (N)  in  the  rear  ends 
of  the  bars,  and  thus  keep  the  strips  firmly  in  position. 

The  fig.  A  represents  the  under  surface  of  the  saddle,  with  the  iron 
plates  (Gr)  let  in ;  the  separate  fig.  Gr  represents  one  of  these  plates,  with 
3  holes  and  slots  to  receive  the  pins  of  the  strips,  riveted  or  screwed  to 
the  bars.     Figs.  B  represent  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  strip;  fig.  E  the 


friTnch  cavalry. 


345 


front  end  of  a  strip,  with  its  pins;  fig.  F  the  rear  end,  with  a  pin  having 
a  hole  through  its  neck  to  receive  the  key -pin. 

Fig.  C  represents  the  cantle,  N  being  the  holes  to  receive  the  keys,  and 
M  being  the  keys  secured  by  a  light  chain. 


["S-^o: 


Fig.  D  gives  a  front  view  of  the  saddle. 

For  a  small  horse,  the  pins  are  placed  in  the  holes*  nearest  the  axis  of 
the  saddle ;  for  a  large  horse,  in  the  outside  holes ;  if  a  horse  is  narrow 
in  the  withers  apd  broad  at  the  loins,  the  pins  are  placed  in  the  inside 
holes  in  front,  and  in  the  outside  holes  behind,  and  vice  versa. 

The  tree  is  covered  with  leather,  and  has  the  ordinary  skirts.  The 
girth,  as  adopted,  is  of  black  leather,  and  in  two  parts. 

The  upper  part  is  4"  broad,  is  screwed  to  bars,  passes  over  the  tree, 
under  the  cover,  and  projects  equally  on  each  side  below  the  bars;  at 


346  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

each  end  of  this  piece  is  an  iron  pin  with  a  brass  roller,  as  shown  in  the 
annexed  figure. 

The  other  portion  of  the  girth  is  a  simple  strap,  3"  broad, 
""^J^^^^^ATAKAj    with  a  large  buckle  at  one  end,  and  a  tongue  at  the  other. 
The  tongue  of  this  strap  is  passed  downwards   behind  the 
roller  on  the  near  side  of  the  horse,  then  upwards  through 
the  roller  on  the  off  side,  and  buckled  on  the  near  side. 

Captain  Cogent  prefers  extending  the  saddle-skirts,  attach- 
ing the  rollers  to  them,  and.  using  the  girth  just  described. 

The   saddle-blanket  (which  is  also  the    horse-cover)  is  of  thick  felt 
cloth ;  it  is  atta^ed  to  the  pommel  by  a  small  strap  passing  through 
holes  in  the  blanket,  which  is  thus  prevented  from  slipping  back,  and  at 
the  same  time  raised  so  as  to  keep  a  free  channel  for  the  circulation  of  • 
air  over  the  horse's  spine. 

The  valise  is  shaped  on  a  former,  hollowed  out  and  covered  with  stiff 
leather  where  it  crosses  the  spine,  so  that  it  cannot  touch;  there  are 
pockets  on  the  ends  of  the  valise  for  the  spare  horseshoes  and  nails. 

The  pouches  are  as  usual;  the  holster  is  of  wood,  covered  with  raw 
hide,  and  is  set  inside  of  the  left  pouch. 

The  saddle  is  not  blackened. 

The  new  equipment  weighs  15  lbs.  less  than  the  old. 

I  am  not  positive  as  to  the  bridle  which  has  been  adopted ;  that  pro- 
posed by  M.  C6gent,  and  which  I  think  has  been  accepted,  is  as  follows : 

There  is  a  snaffle-bit,  with  branches;  the  mouth-piece  in  three 
parts. 

The  curb  has  a  cross-bar,  and  presents  two  striking  peculiarities : 

1st.  The  curb-chain  acts  upon  the  nose,  instead  of  the  chin :  to 
accomplish  this,  a  ring  is  sewed  to  each  side  of  the  nose-band,  close  in 
front  of  the  cheek-pieces;  the  chain,  resting  on  the  nose-band,  passes 
through  these  rings,  and  then  forward  to  the  branches  of  the  bit;  the 
requisite  leverage  is  thus  obtained. 

2d.  The  mouth-piece  is  longer  than  the  interval  between  the  branches, 
the  latter  sliding  through  holes  in  the  mouth-piece;  the  projection  of 
the  mouth-piece  beyond  the  branches  has  a  neck  and  head ;  a  ring  catch 
at  the  end  of  the  cheek-piece  goes  over  this  neck,  and  keeps  the  mouth- 
piece in  its  propef  position;  by  raising  these  ring  catches,  the  mouth- 
piece is  freed  and  may  be  slipped  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  branches,  so 
that  the  horse  can  feed  freely. 

This  arrangement  did  not  strike  me  so  favorably  as  the  Russian :  the 
latter  is  simpler,  and  cannot  get  out  of  order. 

There  is  in  the  possession  of  the  War  Department  a  pamphlet  of  Cap- 
tain Cogent's,  giving  the  drawings  of  his  bridle  and  bit. 


FRENCH    CAVALRY.  347 


UNIFORM.  • 

This  is  so  well  known  in  our  service  that  only  a  few  remarks  will  be 
necessary. 

The  frock-coat  has  not  been  adopted  for  the  cavalry. 

The  pants  are  very  loose,  and  are  re^enforced  with  black  leather. 

Boots  are  worn,  the  spur  being  permanently  attached  to  the  heel. 

All  troops  have  both  a  full-dress  and  a  forage  cap  j  the  former  is  often 
left  at  home  in  time  of  war. 

The  full-dress  cap  varies  with  the  corps ;  the  undress  is  usually  the 
kepis,  which  has  a  large  straight  visor  and  a  loose  conical  top. 

The  African  chasseurs  wear  their  full-dress  cap  in  the  field ;  it  is  much 
like  that  of  our  infantry,  rather  smaller  at  top,  and  has  no  pompon ;  their 
undress  cap  is  the  fez,  a  close-fitting  red  felt  skull-cap,  with  a  tassel. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  uniform  and  equipment  of  this  admi- 
rable corps  are  solely  for  service :  there  is  no  attempt  at  ornament,  and 
nothing  superfluous  is  allowed. 

HORgES. 

In  France  there  are  6,  in  Algiers  3,  remount  companies,  each  consist- 
ing of  1  captain,  5  lieutenants,  and  a  variable  number  of  men;  their 
duty  is  the  purchase  and  care  of  remount  horses. 

Except  at  Saumur,  there  are  no  haras,  properly  so  called ;  that  is  to 
say,  there  are  no  breeding-studs  to  raise  colts  for  the  general  service.^  At 
each  remount  depot  there  are  stallions  of  the  race  most  suitable  for  cross- 
ing with  the  mares  of  the  vicinity;  at  the  proper  seasons  of  the  year 
these  are  distributed  among  the  villages  to  cover  the  mares  of  the  country 
gratuitously.  The  proprietors  of  the  colts  are  under  no  ^obligation  to 
offer  them  for  sale  to  the  government,  but  usually  find  it  their  interest  to 
do  so. 

Horses  are  purchased  at  from  4  to  7  years  of  age,  and  must  be  of 
French  origin. 

The  animal  is  brought  to  the  commandant  of  .the  remount  depot,  and 
submitted  to  his  inspection,  without  any  price  being  named.  If  the  com- 
mandant finds  him  unsuitable,  he  is  at  once  rejected ;  if  the  contrary  is 
the  case,  he  is  brought  before  all  the  officers  of  the  depot  for  a  thorough 
examination. 

Each  officer  then  writes  his  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  animal  on  a 
slip  of  paper ;  these  papers  are  placed  in  a  hat  and  shaken  up,  so  that 
the  estimate  of  each  officer  may  not  be  known ;  the  mean  of  these  esti- 
mates is  then  taken,  and  the  commandant  offers  that  price  for  the  animal. 

If  the  owner  accepts  the  offer,  the  price  is  paid  at  once ;  if  he  refuses, 
the  horse  is  at  once  sent  away,  for  no  bargaining  is  allowed. 


2'' 

to  16  hands 

1. 

or 

to  15 

r 

3" 

to  15 

►or 

sr 

to  15 

2" 

!¥' 

to  15 

1" 

S" 

to  15 

w 

348  THE   ARMIES    OP   EUROPE. 

It  often  happens  that  the  owner  receives  a  larger  price  than  he  would 
have  demlinded. 

This  system  is  stated  to  work  admirably. 

The  average  price  is  fixed  every  year  by  the  minister  of  war ;  it  is 
usually  about  as  follows : 

For  horses  of  the  reserve  cavalry $150 

"  "     artillery  and  cavalry  of  the  line 120 

"  "      light  cavalry 100 

"  "     train  of  artillery,  engineers,  and  baggage 100 

For  officers'  horses 180 

The  average  height  is  fixed  as  follows : 

Reserve  cavalry 15  hands 

Artillery  and  cavalry  of  the  line 15      " 

Light  cavalry 14      " 

Trains 14      " 

Pack-horses 14      " 

Mules 13      " 

Officers'  horses  a  trifle  larger  than  those  of  their  men. 

The  minister  of  war  may  authorize  the  minimum  to  be  reduced  J",  pro- 
vided the  general  conformation  and  qualities  of  the  animal  are  something 
remarkable. 

The  government  provides  each  officer  with  two  horses;  if  an  officer 
keeps  the  same  animal  7  years,  it  becomes  his  private  property ;  he  may 
have* an  unfit  horse  exchanged  by  applying  to  the  inspector-general  at  the 
period  of  the  general  inspection,  provided  the  inspector  decides  that  the 
horse  is  really  unfit  for  service. 

Captains  and  field  officers  are  all  allowed  2  government  horses,  and 
forage  for  thS  regulation  number  above  two. 

But  little  can  be  said  in  favor  of  the  appear^mce  of  the  French  cavalry 
horses ;  those  of  the  heavy  cavalry  are  either  heavy,  slow,  and  awkward, 
or  else  are  long-legged,  and  have  too  much  daylight  under  them;  the 
light-cavalry  horses  must  be  better' than  they  look,  for  they  appear  unable* 
to  do  their  work,  yet  they  manage  to  get  through  with  it.  The  Ijorses  at 
Saumur  are  generally  excellent;  and  those  of  the  African  chasseurs  are 
exceptions  to  the  rule ;  they  are  entire  Arabians,  and  are  generally  very 
good. 

RATIONS   OF   THE   MEN. 

The  normal  ration  in  the  Crimea  was  : 

1  lb.  lOi  ounces  of  bread,  or  1  lb.  3 J  ounces  of  biscuit;  1.05  ounce 
of  rice  or  beans;  2.1  ounces  of  the  ChoUet  prepared  vegetables;  8f 
ounces  fresh  meat  or  salt  beef,  or  7  ounces  of  salt  pork ;  0.44  pint  of 
wine,  or  0.11  pint  of  brandy. 


FRENCH  CAVALRY. 


349 


'CoflFee  and  sngar  were  issued  extra,  and  the  other  parts  of  the  ration 


were  changed  according  to  circumstances. 


£      13" 


In  the  cavalry  the  messes  consist  of  5  men  each;  each  mess  having  its 
own  cocfking-utensils,  which  the  men  cawy  hy  turns,  strapped  to  the 
saddle.  These  utensils  consist  of  the  marmite,  represented  in  elevation  and 
plan  by  fig.  A ;  the  gamelle,  fig.  B ;  the  bidon,  shown  in  elevation  and 
plan  of  top  in  fig.  D ;  the  frying-pan,  fig.  C ;  the  small  gamelle,  fig.  E. 

The  marmite  is  for  making  soup ;  the  bidon  merely  to  bring  water  for 
cooking- purposes;  the  gamelle  as  a  dish  out  of  which  they  eat.  Some- 
times the  small  gamelle  is  substituted  for  the  large  one ;  in  this  case  each 
man  has  a  small  gamelle;   fig.  E  represents  3  small  gamelles  carried 


350  THE  ARMIES.  OF  EUROPE. 

by  means  of  a  strap ;  each  small  gamelle  has  a  tin  cover,  which  is  coun- 
tersunk, and  has  a  ring  as  a  handle  :  the  cover  is  attached  to  the  gamelle 
by  a  light  chain. 

The  frying-pan  is  not  always  issued. 

For  each  mess  of  5,  one  marmite,  one  bidon,  and  one  large  gamelle  are 
habitually  provided. 

In  garrison  the  cooking  and  messing  are  by  squadron. 

It  may  be  remarked  of  the  French,  as  of  most  other  continental  rations, 
that  they  are  insufficient,  and  Qught  not  to  be  taken  as  guides  in  our  own 
service. 

The  prepared  Chollet  vegetables  are  extensively  used  in  the  field,  and 
would  be  admirably  adapted  for  issue  in  our  long  prairie  marches. 

QUARTERS. 

These  are  sometimes  in  the  same  building  with  the  stable,  sometimes 
separate. 

In  the  new  buildings  the  horse  equipments  are  kept  in  the  quarters,  or 
else  in  rooms  in  the  stable-lofts. 

The  quarters  are  specially  described  in  the  report  upon  the  infantry; 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  state  here  that  the  arrangement  and  police  are  by 
no  means  such  as  to  render  them  models  to  be  followed. 

FORAGE. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  rations :  that  in  time  of  peace,  that  on  an  ordi- 
nary march,  and  that  in  the  field  in  war. 

The  regulation  ration  in  time  of  war  is  as  follows : 

Hay,  straw.  Oats, 

Carbineers  and  cuirassiers..  15.4  pounds;  8.8  pounds;  8.36  pounds. 

Dragoons  and  lancers 13.2       "  8.8       ''         8.36       " 

Chasseurs  and  hussars 11  "  8.8       "         8.36       " 

Pack-horses 15.4       '\  8.8       "         8.36       " 

Mules 11         "  8.8       "         8.36      " 

In  October,  1855,  the  ration  in  the  Crimea  was :  for  French  horses, 
9  pounds  hay,  11  pounds  barley ;  for  African  horses,  6.05  pounds  hay,  10 
pounds  barley. 

The  largest  allowance  for  French  horses  during  the  campaign  was :  11 
pounds  hay,  13.2  pounds  barley. 

The  allowance  for  African  horses,  given  above,  was  regarded  as  too 
small. 

The  regulation  allowance  may  be  changed  as  follows  :  For  hay,  an  equal 
weight  of  clover,  or  double  the  weight  of  straw,  or  half  the  weight  of  oats, 
may  be  substituted;  for  straw,  half  the  weight  of  hay,  or  one-fourth  of 


FRENCH  CAVALRY.  351 

oats,  may  be  substituted ;  for  oats,  double  the  weight  of  hay,  four  times 
the  weight  of  straw,  50  per  cent,  additional  weight  of  bran,  or  8  per  cent, 
of  barley,  may  be  substituted. 

If  the  horse  has  no  appetite,  or  the  forage  is  of  indifferent  quality,  the 
food  is  sprinkled  with  salt  water. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  feed  the  horse  upon  grass,  he  should  be  accus- 
tomed to  it  by  degrees,  giving  but  a  little  at  first,  and  increasing  the 
quantity  as  he  becomes  habituated  to  it.  For  the  first  few  days  the  full 
or  half  ration  of  grain  should  be  issued. 

As  a  last  resort,  the  following  substances  may  be  employed  for  forage  : 
malty  which  fattens  but  does  not  strengthen  the  horse,  and  which  renders 
them  liable  to  disease  when  they  change  it  for  other  food,  after  having 
become  accustomed  to  it  ]  furze,  which  is  very  nutritious,  but  must  be 
crushed  with,  a  hammer  or  in  a  mortar,  on  account  of  the  roughness  of  its 
leaves;  the  pods  of  the  locust;  flaxseed;  the  roots  of  grass,  well  washed ; 
the  bark  of  trees ;  and,  finally,  even  dry  wood,  cut  into  shavings. 

Running  water  is  given  in  preference  to  stagnant.  Bad  water  may 
be  purified  by  charcoal,  hydrochloric  and  acetic  acids.  If  the  water 
contains  leeches,  or  other  similar  things,  the  horses  must  drink  with  the 
nose-bag  on. 

The  water  given  to  the  horses  ought  to  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of 
the  same  temperature  as  the  air;  therefore,  in  summer  it  may  sometimes 
be  necessary  to  exjpose  it  to  the  sun,  while  in  winter  it  should  be  given 
immediately  after  being  drawn. 

STABLES. 

The  following  are  the  regulations  and  arrangements  of  stables : 

As  far  as  possible,  the  horses  of  the  same  squadron  should  be  placed  in 
the  same  building,  divided  by  partition-walls  or  staircases,  in  to -stables  of 
equal  capacity. 

When  windows  can  be  arranged  in  both  long  walls,  place  the  horses 
head  to  head,  separating  the  two  rows  of  stalls  by  a  longitudinal  partition, 
which  should  not  be  more  than  V  higher  than  the  top  of  the  hay-rack, 
betwee;i  thepillarg  which  support  the  roof. 

The  interior  width  of  a  stable  for  1  row  of  stalls  is  20' ;  for  2  rows,  it 
is  40',  when  they  are  head  to  head;  34'  8",  wKen  they  are  tail  to  tail; 
height  of  ceiling,  16'  8". 

Doors  should  be  pierced  in  the  gable  ends,  and  in  the  transverse  par- 
tition-walls, to  secure  a  longitudinal  ventilation  during  the  absence  of  the 
horses. 

The  doors  for  ordinary  use  should  be  pierced  in  the  long  walls ;  width, 
6' 8";  height,  at  least  8' 8". 

There  should  be  a  window,  with  an  area  of  about  16  square  feet,  for 


352  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

every  3  stalls ;  the*  sill  10'  above  the  floor ;  the  sash  revolving  around  a 
horizontal  axis  at  the  bottom,  and  opening  by  the  simplest  mechanism ; 
wooden  shutters  to  be  provided,  if  necessary. 

The  recesses  for  the  windows  should  extend  to  the  floor,  and  be  pro- 
vided with  hooks  or  racks  for  suspending  the  horse  equipments ;  in  these 
recesses,  openings  8'  4"  X  2'  4"  should  be  made  through  the  wall,  for 
throwing  out  the  litter. 

If  necessary,  ventilators  may  be  cut  through  the  roof  in  the  middle  of 
the  passage-ways  behind  the  stalls ;  ventilators  near  the  floor  should  be 
employed  only  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity. 

The  floor  ought  to  be  of  hard  stones,  laid  on  a  firm  foundation,  and  the 
joints  filled  with  hydraulic  mortar,  cement,  or  asphalt;  slope  of  floor  of 
stall,  from  two  to  three  tenths  of  an  inch  in  ten  inches. 

Mangers  of  wood,  stone,  or  cast  iron,  placed  on  a  mass  of  masonry,  the 
front  surface  of  which,  as  well  as  that  of  the  manger,  has  a  reversed  slope 
of  f . 

The  wooden  mangers  are  divided  by  partitions  :  those  of  stone  or  iron 
are  hollowed  out  to  the  length  of  2!  for  each  horse,  being  solid  between 
the  hollows ;  depth  8'',  width  at  top  1',  at  bottom  9". 6 ;  top  of  manger 
3'  8"  above  the  floor. 

The  hay-racks  of  wood,  and  continuous,  3'  4"  high,  and  placed  5'  4" 
above  the  floor.  The  bars  round,  an,d  capable  of  turning  in  their  sockets, 
each  bar  1.2"  in  diameter,  and  placed  4''  apart;  racks  of  iron  may  be 
authorized. 

The  system  of  securing  the  horse  consists  of:  1st,  a  bar  of  round  iron 
bent  at  both  ends,  placed.up  and  down,  parallel 
to  the  face  of  the  manger,  the  upper  end  se- 
cured to  the  manger,  the  lower  built  into  the 
•  masonry ;  2d,  a  ring  sliding  on  this  bar,  and 
having  a  chain  2'  long,  with  a  T  at  the  free 
end,  attached  to  it;  this  T  toggles  to  the 
halter-ring.  The  annexed  sketch  shows  this 
arrangement. 

Each  horse  is  allowed  a  width  of  .4'  10'', 
%W/''-/y^f^     never  less  than  4'  8",  so  that  he  may  have  the 
allowance  of  70  cubic  feet,  and  the  space  ne- 
cessary for  stable-guards,  utensils,  &c.,  may  be  preserved. 

Stables  which  are  less  than  29'  wide  and  12'  high  can  be  used  for  two 
rows  of  horses  only  as  a  temporary  arrangement. 

Among  the  French  stables  of  all  dates  and  varieties,  one  recently  com- 
pleted at  Saumur,  and  the  new  ones  at  'Lyons,  are  justly  regarded  as 
models  of  excellence. 

Their  dimensions  and  general  arrangements  are  in  conformity  with  the 


FRENCH    CAVALRY.. 


353 


regulations  given  atove :  there  are,  however,  some  details  worthy  of  notice ; 
that  at  Saumur,  being  the  most  perfect,  will  be  described  in  preference. 
The  stalls  are  4'  10"  wide  in  the  clear,  and  10'  long  to  the  heel-posts  j 


they  are  separated  by  swinging  planks,  suspended  as  shown  in  the  foregoing 
sketch. 


354  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  floors  are  of  cubical  blocks  of  stone,  laid  in  cement.  A  sliallow 
gutter  in  rear  of  each  row  of  stalls  allows  the  stale  to  drain  off.  The  longi- 
tudinal partition  is  of  masonry,  and  about  10'  high.  The  interior  of  the 
stable  is  plastered;  the  wood-work  painted  oak  color.  In  the  window- 
recesses  there  are  racks,  on  which  to  hang  the  horse  equipments  when 
saddling  and  unsaddling. 

The  equipments  are  kept  in  rooms  in  the  loft,  where  the  saddles  are 
placed  on  horizontal  wooden  pins,  the  bridles  hung  on  hooks.  The  racks 
are  continuous  and  of  wood ;  the  string-pieces,  and  each  bar,  are  bound 
with  narrow  strips  of  sheet  iron. 

The  lower  string-piece  rests  upon  iron  hooks,  let  into  the  wall;  the  upper 
one  is  held  firm  by  iron  bars,  also  let  into  the  wall. 

The  manger  is  a  continuous  mass  of  stone,  with  an  excavation  for  each 
animal;  these  excavations  are  22"  long,  12"  deep,  and  12"  wide  at  top. 

The  building  is  divided  into  apartments,  for  about  20  horses  each,  by 
transverse  partitions  and  stairway-halls;  there  are  large  doors  in  these 
partitions.     In  a  central  hall  there  are  water-tanks. 

The  openings  mentioned  in  the  regulations  for  removing  the  litter  do 
not  exist. 

The  halter-bars  are  arranged  as  described  in  the  regulations ;  but  there 
is  another  ring  and  chain,  above  the  manger,  for  use  in  the  daytime. 

Forage  for  3  or  4  days  is  kept  in  the  loft,  where  there  are  also  rooms, 
for  a  few  non-commissioned  officers. 

In  the  floor  of  the  loft  there  are  trap-doors,  so  that  hay  and  straw  may 
be  thrown  down  into  the  halls  below. 

The  oats  run  down  from  the  bin,  through  a  wooden  pipe,  into  a  large 
box  on  wheels. 

On  the  outside  of  the  walls  there  are  rings  for  attaching  the  horses 
while  being  groomed. 

At  Lyons,  some  of  the  stables  had  quarters  in  the  second  story ;  this 
is  stated  by  many  officers  to  be  an  admirable  arrangement,  and  attended 
with  no  inconvenience  whatever;  there  are  a  few  who  object  to  it. 

The  hospital  stables  are  always  separate  from  the  others,  and  have  box 
stalls. 

STABLE-DUTY. 

In  each  squadron,  the  stable-guard  generally  consists  of  a  corporal  and 
1  man  for  every  20  horses.  It  is  their  duty  to  feed  the  horses,  watch 
over  their  safety  during  the  night,  and  attend  to  the  general  police  of 
the  stables,  being  assisted  by  an  additional  detail  at  the  hours  of  stable- 
call. 

About  one-half  the  litter  is  usually  kept  down  during  the  day. 

The  oats  is  given  in  two  feeds:  one-half  at  morning  stable-call,  the 
rest  in  the  evening. 


FRENCH   CAVALRY.  •      355 

The  hay  is  divided  into  three  equal  portions, — at  morning,  noon,  and 
night;  in  the  forage-magazine  it  is  put  up  in  trusses  of  1  ration  each, 
and  thus  received  in  the  stable-loft;  at  each  feed  the  stable-guard  receive 
these  trusses,  and  divide  each  one  among  three  horses. 

If  straw  is  fed,  it  is  given  either  just  before  or  just  after  the  hay, — 
always  in  the  same  order. 

The  horse  is  watered  twice  a  day,  either  jusfe  before  or  after  his  grain. 

The  horse  is  cleaned  principally  with  a  bouchon  of  straw  and  with  the 
brush ;  the  comb  is  used  only  to  clean  the  brush. 

FIELD    SERVICE. 

The  allowance  of  transportation  in  the  field  is  probably  less  for  the 
African  chasseufs  than  for  any  other  corps;  it  will,  therefore,  be  given 
as  it  was  for  the  4-squadron  regiments  in  the  Crimea : 
For  each  regiment,  1  cart  for  money,  papers,  &c. 

For  the  colonel 1  pack-animal. 

For  2  chiefs  of  squadrons 2     "         " 

For  2  captains  adjutant 2     "         " 

For  2  surgeons 1     "         " 

For  2  veterinaries 1     "         ". 

Fo J  2  adjutants  (non-commissioned) 1     "         " 

For  1  treasurer 1     "         " 

For  field  ofi&cers' mess 1     "         " 

For  medicines  and  instruments  .^ 1     "         " 

For  horse-medicines 1     "         " 

Total  for  staff  of  4-squadron  regiment 12  pack-animals. 

In  each  squadron — 

2  captains 2  pack-animals. 

4  lieutenants 2     "         " 

Officers'  mess 1     "         " 

Sergeants' mess,  &e ....  1     "         " 

Total  for  each  squadron 6  pack-animals. 

Recapitulation. 

Staff 1 12  pack-animab. 

4  squadrons 24     "         " 

For  ammunition,  cacolets,  and  subsistence 12     "         " 

Total  for  a  regiment  of  4  squadrons. .  .1  cart^nd  48  pack-animals. 


356  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 

The  led  horses  of  the  squadrons  are  used  as  pack-animals,  and  counted 
in  the  number  as  given  above ;  officers  are  not  usually  permitted  to  pack 
their  spare  riding-horses. 

At  the  commencement  of  a  campaign,  each  lieutenant  of  cavalry  re- 
ceives $125  for  the  purchase  of  his  outfit;  a  captain  receives  $250;  if  a 
lieutenant  is  promoted  during  the  campaign,  he  receives  the  difference 
between  the  two  sums. 

During  a  campaign  the  officers  are  permitted  to  draw  rations  from  the 
commissary  department  at  cost  prices,  paying  their  bills  monthly. 

In  the  Crimea,  the  mass  of  the  French  troops  had  no  other  shelter 
than  the  tente  d'abri,  (shelter-tent ;)  as  late  as  October,  1855,  the  African 
chasseurs,  the  cuirassiers,  some  of  the  other  cavalry,  and  most  of  the 
infantry  of  the  line,  had  only  the  shelter-tent;  the  imperial  guard  and 
the  artillery  were  provided  with  the  regulation  tent.  During  the  first 
winter,  very  few  of  the  troops  had  more  than  the  shelter-tent.  This  is 
composed  of  pieces  of  linen  5'  square,  having  button-holes  along  one 
edge,  and  the  buttons  along  the  adjoining  edge;  each  man  carries  one 
piece. 

The  following  sketch  shows  the  manner  of  forming  the  shelter.  The  two 
sticks,  each  about  4'  long,  are  stuck  in  the  ground  a  little  more  than  5' 
apart;  they  are  connected  by  a  small  cord,  drawn  tight,  which  js  passed 
around  each  about  3  J'  above  the  ground;  the  ends  of  this  cord  are  attached 


to  pins,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  two  pieces  of  cloth  are  then  but- 
toned together,  and  thrown  over  the  rope  between  the  sticks ;  their  lower 
edges  are  secured  to  small  pins :  the  roof  of  the  shelter  is  thus  complete. 
Grenerally  3*  men  unite  to  form  one  shelter ;  the  third  man  arranges  liis 
piece  of  cloth  over  the  end  of  the  shelter  which  is  most  exposed  to  the 
weather.  If  5  men  unite  to  form  a  shelter,  it  is  made  double  the  length 
shown  in  the  sketch. 

Sometimes  jointed  sticks  are  carried  to  support  the  shelter;  sometimes 
stakes  are  cut  on  the  ground ;  occasionally  the  musket  is  used  for  the 
purpose. 


FRENCH    CAVALRY. 


357 


When  the  camp'is  somewhat  permanent,  it  is  usual  to  dig  a  little  cellar 
and  bank  up  the  earth  outsicJe. 

In  the  Crimea,  the  cavalry  usually  encamped  in  line,  with  two  rows  of 
picket-ropes,  and  a  line  of  shelter-tents  in  front  of  and  behind  the  picket- 
ropes  ;  the  arms  and  equipments  between  the  shelters  and  the  picket-ropes. 

The  picket-rope  is  stretched  on  the  ground,  and  the  horses  secured  to  it 
by  a  hobble  on  the  right  fore-foot;  the  hobble  is  of  leather,  and  about  3' 
long;  it  buckles  around  the  pastern-joint;  sometimes  the  hobble  is  attached 
to  a  picket-pin,  instead  of  a  picket-rope. 


'^^--^^ 


The  foregoing  sketch  shows  this  arrangement ;  it  is  spoken  of  by  the 
French  officers  as  being  the  best  manner  of  securing  the  horses. 

Officers'  horses  are  on  the  flanks  of  the  squadron  picket-ropes ;  those 
of  the  field  and  staff  are  near  the  tents  of  their  owners. 

For  the  latter,  rude  stables  are  usually  formed,  by  excavating  to  the 
depth  of  a  couple  of  feet,  banking  up  the  earth  around  three  sides,  and 
then  forming  a  roof  and  walls  of  brush. 

When  time  and  circumstances  permitted,  the  same  wa^  done  for  the 
horses  of  the  men, — especially  in  the  winter.  It  was  stated  that  a  very 
slight  protection  of  this  kind  produced  very  marked  beneficial  result^.  In 
this  connection,  I  would  remark  that  companies  of  cavalry  ought  always  to 
be  provided  with  a  sufficient  number  of  tools  to  enable  them  to  improvise 
some  such  shelter  in  any  camp  at  all  permanent :  any  thing  which  partially 
protects  the  horses  from  the  cold  winds  is  of  great  service. 

The  French  horses  were  blanketed  in  camp. 

The  sketch  on  page  358  is  a  section  of  the  conical  tent  used  by  the  French 
staff  officers ;  it  will  be  observed  that  it  has  low  walls,  and  but  one  central 
pole. 

In  the  Crimea,  the  horses  wer%  fed  3  times  each  day;  when  the  ration 


B58 


THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


was  large,  4  times.  They  were  watered  twice  a  day, — early  in  the  morning 
and  at  about  3  p.m.;  sometimes  but  once  a  day. 

They  were  cleaned  twice  a  day. 

The  men  of  the  African  chasseurs  never  go  to  bed  without  cleaning  and 
rubbing  down  their  horses,  whatever  may  be  the  weather  and  the  hour  of 
night  when  they  reach  camp. 

On  the  march,  each  man  carries  4  days'  barley,  2  days'  hay,  and  4  days* 
rations  for  himself. 


When  going  into  action,  the  men,  whenever  it  is  possible,  leave  their 
forage-rations,  cooking-utensils,  &c.,  in  charge  of  a  few  men,  or  the  dis- 
mounted men,  retaining  only  cloak,  arms,  and  ammunition ;  for  a  division 
to  effect  this  requires  about  half  an  hour. 

There  are  always  a  number  of  dismounted  men  to  take  care  of  baggage- 
animals,  act  as  officers'  servants,  &c. 

The  daily  service,  manner  of  performing  outpost  duty,  &c.,  vary  with 
circumstances,  and  are  regulated  in  orders  by  the  general  of  division.  For 
some  six  months,  during  the  first  winter  in  the  Crimea,  the  horses  were  kept 
saddled  all  day;  in  the  fall  of  1855  there  was  but  one  squadron  on  outpost 
duty  on  the  Tchernaya ;  the  horses  of  the  other  squadrons  were  at  their 
picket-ropes,  unsaddled.  Of  the  squadron  on  duty,  one-half  was  in  advance 
of  the  Tchernaya,  saddled  and  bridled;  it  threw  out  vedettes  and  pickets; 
the  other  half  remained  in  bivouac  south  of  the  stream,  saddled,  but 
not  bridled.  The  vedettes  were  always  double,  and  relieved  every  hour, 
or  two  Bours, — according  to  the  weather;  if  any  thing  occurred,  one 
vedette  rode  in  to  inform  the  picket,  the  other  remaining  at  his  post  to 
watch. 

In  the  African  chasseurs,  the  men  being  old  soldiers,  Tess  minute  atten- 
tion to  details  was  required  from  the  officers  :  for  instance,  if  it  was  intended 
to  start  at  4  ia  the  morning,  it  was  only  necessary  to  announce  the  fact  to 


FRENCH    CAVALRY.  359 

the  men ;  the  hour  for  rising,  feeding  the  horses,  hreakfasting,  &c.,  need 
not  be  specified,  but  the  men  can  be  trusted  to  be  in  the  saddle  at  the  hour 
appointed. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  end  of  a  march  sooner,  and  thus  give  the  horses 
more  time  to  repose,  a  part  of  the  march  is  usually  made  at  the  trot,  not 
faster  than  5  miles  an  hour  •  the  horses  must  be  brought  to  a  walk  20 
minutes  before  every  halt,  and  one  hour  before  reaching  camp. 

In  crossing  long  and  steep  slopes,  the  men  dismount ;  but  they  must  not 
dismount  and  mount  very  often. 

The  march  ought  not  to  be  greater  than  from  25  to  31  miles. 

Very  full  instructions  as  to  the  manner  of  conducting  marches,  and  the 
general  duty  in  the  field,  are  to  be  found  in  the  French  regulations ;  in 
practice,  these  regulations  are  followed  as  closely  as  circumstances  will 
permit. 

The  cacolets,  mentioned  when  giving  the  allowance  of  transportation, 
are  mule-litters ;  each  mule  carries  two,  slung  on  each  side  of  an  ordinary 
pack-saddle;  their  frame  is  of  jointed  iron,  and  can  be  arranged  either  in 
the  form  of  a  chair  for  those  who  are  but  slightly  wounded,  or  as  a  couch 
for  more  severe  cases.  They  are  well  worthy  of  examination  for  adoption 
in  our  own  service,  in  cases  where  commands  move  without  wagons ;  they 
will  be  found  to  be  described  in  the  report  of  another  member  of  the 
commission. 

TRANSPORTATION   OF   MEN   AND    HORSES   BY   SEA. 

The  American  vessels,  the  Great  Republic  and  the  Monarch  of  the  Seas, 
were  fitted  up  at  Marseilles  by  the  French  government  as  horse-transports, 
and  present  good  examples  of  the  system  pursued ;  the  arrangements  were 
the  same  in  both. 

The  Great  Republic  is  317'  by  53'  over  all,  30'  hold,  tonnage  3,424; 
she  has  carried  497  horses  and  500  men  at  the  same  time ;  240  horses  on 
each  "  between-decks,"  the  rest  on  the  spar-deck. 

A  donkey  engine,  of  8-horse  power  and  12"  stroke,  was  employed  to 
hoist  the  horses  in  and*  out ;  a  load  of  horses  taken  in,  or  discharged,  at  the 
•rate  of  1  horse  per  minute. 

In  one  voyage,  of  21  days,  out  of  497  animals,  9  horses  and  4  mules 
were  lost ;  most  of  these  were  sick  when  brought  on  board,  and  suffered 
much  from  the  heat  at  Malta. 

Three  additional  ventilating-ports  were  cut  on  each  side  of  each  deck; 
three  weeks  were  occupied  in  putting  up  the  stalls. 

The  Monarch  of  the  Seas  is  of  2,360  tons  burden. 

She  carries  300  horses,  or  950  soldiers  and  28  officers ;  loads  and  dis- 
charges, by  means  of  a  donkey  engine  of  8-horse  power,  at  the  same  rate 

as  the  Great  Republic.    The  cost  of  putting  up  the  stalls  was  about  68,000. 

22 


360  THE    ARMIES   OF    EUROPE. 

On  one  voyage  she  lost  about  20  horses  out  of  300.  Out  of  3,000  horses, 
carried  at  different  times,  she  lost  about  30  in  all. 

In  all  the  transports  the  government  furnished  the  forage ;  the  ships 
fed  the  men  under  a  contract. 

The  loading  was  under  the  direction  of  government  employes;  the 
captain  of  the  vessel  regulated  the  extinction  of  lights,  &c. 

It  is  considered  best  to  transport  horses  on  board  of  large  sailing-ves- 
sels, towed  by  steamers,  thus  avoiding  the  heat  of  the  engine,  &c. 

The  lower  deck  is  regarded  as  best  for  the  horses. 

The  horses  are  cleaned  once  a  day ;  fed  and  watered  twice  :  these  de- 
tails are  regulated  by  the  officers  of  the  troops. 

The  horse  equipments,  &c.,  are  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  decks. 

Horse  medicines  were  brought  on  board  by  the  veterinaries  on  duty 
with  the  troops. 

When  the  vessel  is  '^  end  on"  to  the  wharf,  a  bridge  of  decked  flat- 
boats  is  made  from  the  shore,  and  the  horses  walked  alongside;  the  slings 
are  then  put  on,  and  the  animals  hoisted  in,  with  the  saddle  and  entire 
equipment  on  them. 

The  sling  used  on  board  ship  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  em- 
ployed in  the  English  service;  when  used  for  hoisting  in  and  out,  a 
breeching  and  breast-strap  are  employed. 

On  the  voyage  the  sling  is  used  only  in  bad  weather,  when  the  horses 
become  fatigued. 

The  sea-halters  are  of  rope,  with  two  halter-ropes. 

The  sketches  on  page  361  give  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  stalls. 

The  breast  and  tail  boards  are  nailed  to  the  stanchions,  and  are  3" 
thick;  the  side-boards  slip  in  grooves.  The  heads  of  the  horses  are 
towards  the  middle  of  the  ship. 

The  stalls  are  28'^  wide,  and  5'  10''  long  in  the  clear  between  the  pads. 

The  pads  are  of  canvas,  stuffed  with  hair ;  they  were  too  thin. 

The  feed-troughs  of  wood,  and  hung  to  hooks  on  the  front  of  the 
breast-board :  they  are  22"  long,  7"  deep,  10  2"  wide  at  top,  7¥'  wide  at 
bottom, — all  these  dimensions  in  the  clear ;  the  edges  covered  with  sheet 
zinc.  For  each  sling  there  are  two  sling  bolts  and  rings,  attached  to  planks* 
spiked  to  the  joists. 

To  each  halter-ring  two  halter-ropes,  of  adjacent  horses,  are  attached. 
The  flooring  of  the  stalls  is  of  inch  boards,  resting  flat  on  the  deck ;  long 
cleats  in  front  and  rear,  as  shown  in  the  figures,  and  cross-cleats,  parallel 
to  the  length  of  the  stall,  under  each  side-board,  are  nailed  to  the  floor ; 
this  flooring  cannot  be  taken  up  while  the  horses  are  on  board. 

The  stale  passes  out  through  the  scuppers  as  best  it  can.  The  hatches 
are  always  kept  open. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  arrangement  of  the  stalls  is  such  that  a  single 


PEENCH    CAVALRY. 


361 


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362  THE    ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

horse  cannot  be  removed  from  tlie  middle  of  a  row  without  first  removing 
all  the  others  between  him  and  one  end,  or  else  sawing  off  the  breast- 
board;  this  and  the  arrangement  of  the  flooring  are  objectionable. 

It  will  be  seen  hereafter  that  these  defects  are  obviated  in  the  English 
system,  which  will  be  described  in  its  proper  place,  and  which  may  safely 
be  taken  as  a  model. 

When  horses  are  carried  on  the  spar-deck,  they  are  placed  in  movable 
box  stalls. 

The  men  sleep  about  the  decks,  as  they  best  can,  in  their  overcoats ; 
blankets  are  sometimes  given  them, — especially  if  they  are  sick.  Neither 
bunks  nor  hammocks  are  provided.  The  rations  of  the  men  on  board 
ship  are  as  follows  : — 

Breakfast,  6^  ounces  of  bread,  J^j  pint  of  brandy  or  rum,  /^  ounce  of 
coffee,  j^Q  ounce  of  sugar. 

Dinner,  6  J  ounces  of  bread,  y%  pint  of  wine,  either  8f  ounces  of  salt 
beef  or  7y^(j  ounces  of  pork,  2  J^  ounces  of  potatoes,  peas,  or  beans,  or  1 
ounce  of  rice,  or  4y2^  ounces  of  cheese. 

Supper,  6i  ounces  of  bread,  -^^  pint  of  wine,  A^^  ounces  of  Chollet 
vegetables,  or  2  ounces  of  rice. 

VETERINARY    SCHOOLS. 

Of  these  there  are  three  :  one  at  Alfort,  near  Paris,  one  at  Lyons,  one 
at  Toulouse, — all  under  the  minister  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  public 
works.  At  Alfort  there  are  40  pupils,  sent  by  the  war  department,  who 
supply  about  40  veterinaries  per  annum  for  the  army ;  as  this  number  is 
insufficient,  the  graduates  from  civil  life  frequently  receive  appointments. 

These  institutions  are  all  conducted  on  the  same  principles :  that  at 
Alfort,  however,  is  the  most  extensive,  and  probably  the  best ;  a  descrip- 
tion of  that  at  Lyons  will  give  a  sufficiently  accurate  idea  of  the  general 
nature  of  all. 

At  this  there  are  150  pupils,  admitted  between  the  ages  of  17  and  25, 
and  paying  $80  per  annum. 

They  are  required  to  pass  a  preliminary  examination,  at  which  they 
must  show  that  they  can  forge  a  shoe  in  two  heats,  that  they  understand 
the  French  grammar,  and  can  write,  know  arithmetic  and  the  elements 
of  geometry,  and  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  Europe, 
as  well  as  a  special  acquaintance  with  that  of  France. 

The  pupils  are  divided  into  4  classes,  the  course  being  of  four  years. 
For  the  two  junior  classes  the  course  is  purely  theoretical,  and  they  are 
required  to  study  8  hours  a  day ;  in  the  two  senior  classes  it  is  partly 
practical,  their  presence  in  the  study-rooms  being  required  but  4  hours 
per  day. 

The  members  of  the  two  senior  classes  have,  each,  one  or  more  sick 


FRENCH    CAVALRY. 

horses  assigned  to  their  care,  to  which  they  administer  the  requisite 
medical  treatment,  under  the  supervision  and  according  to  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  professors.  There  is  a  clinique,  or  dispensary,  whither  sick 
horses  are  brought  every  day,  the  professors  prescribing  and  making 
remarks  upon  the  cases ;  each  pupil  has  a  book  in  which  he  records  the 
prescriptions,  remarks,  and  whole  history  of  the  cases;  he  retains  this 
book  when  he  leaves  the  school. 

During  the  whole  course  the  pupils  are  required  to  make  shoes  and  to 
shoe  horses. 

The  academic  staff  is  as  follows  : 

1.  The  director,  who  is  also  professor  of  anatomy  and  external  diseases. 

2.  A  professor  of  external  pathology,  surgery,  and  shoeing. 

3.  A  professor  of  internal  pathology,  and  botany. 

4.  A  professor  of  hygiene,  physiology,  and  sanitary  police. 

5.  A  professor  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  pharmacy. 
In  addition  there  are  three  assistant  professors. 

The  pupils  reside  in  the  establishment,  and  are  kept  under  very  strict 
discipline.  When  they  pass  their  final  examination  they  receive  a 
regular  diploma  as  veterinary  physicians. 

In  the  practice  at  this  institution,  the  glanders  is  regarded  as  incurable, 
and  the  fleam  is  preferred  to  the  spring  lancet. 

The  boxes  for  very  sick  or  large  horses  are  11'  4"  wide,  14'  9"  long, 
with  a  passage-way  of  5'  in  rear,  and  are  about  15'  high ;  in  front  of  the 
stables  there  is  an  iron  shed  10'  6"  wide. 

The  mangers  are  of  stone ;  racks,  of  wood ;  floors,  of  hard  brick,  laid 
on  the  long  edge ;  the  divisions  between  the  stalls  are  solid,  and  swing  on 
pivots,  so  as  to  yield  to  the  kick  of  the  animal. 

There  are  stables  for  cows ;  kennels  for  dogs,  cats,  &c. 

There  are  also  dissecting-rooms, — animals  being  purchased  and  killed, 
for  the  purpose. 

The  library  has  a  reading-room  attached,  and  contains  general  scientific 
works,  as  well  as  those  relating  especially  to  the  veterinary  art. 

The  collection  of  instruments  for  experiments  in  natural  philosophy  is 
fair. 

There  is  a  small  anatomical  museum,  in  which  are  found  nearly  all  the 
admirable  models  made  by  Dr.  Augoux  ;  these  represent  the  teeth,  bones, 
intestines, — in  fact,  all  parts, — of  the  horse,  as  well  as  complete  models 
showing  the  whole  external  and  internal  structure  of  the  animal.  They 
are  made  of  a  material  not  unlike  papier-mache,  and  are  durable  and 
accurate. 

These  models  are  in  general  use  throughout  Europe,  and  are  regarded, 
as  indispensable  in  a  veterinary  school. 

Specimens  were  purchased  by  the  commission;  and  I  would  urgently 


364  THE   ARMIES    OF   EUROPE. 

recommend  that  complete  sets  be  procured  for  the  military  academy,  the 
cavalry  depot,  and  for  general  use  in  the  service. 

In  the  botanical  garden  are  found  specimens  of  all  proper  and  noxious 
aliments  for  the  horse,  medicinal  plants,  &c. 

The  forges  in  the  shoeing-shop  are  of  iron,  and  well  arranged ;  the  tools 
present  nothing  peculiar. 

The  method  of  cold-shoeing  is  pursued  here,  as  is  universally  the  case 
in  the  French  government  establishments.  This  process  will  be  fully 
explained  when  describing  the  farrier  school  at  Saumur. 

CAVALRY  SCHOOL  AT   SAUMUR. 

This  is  the  most  perfect  and  extensive  institution  of  the  kind  in 
Europe, — ^perhaps  the  only  one  really  deserving  the  title,  the  others  being 
more  properly  mere  schools  of  equitation. 

It  is  situated  on  the  Loire,  in  the  department  of  the  Maine  and  Loire, 
a  region  in  which  forage  abounds,  and  where  the  climate  is  such  that 
exercises  in  the  open  air  are  seldom  interrupted. 

The  organization  and  purposes  of  the  school  cannot  be  better  described 
than  by  giving  extracts  from  the  "Decree  of  Reorganization,"  dated 
October,  1853 : 

"  The  purpose  of  the  cavalry  school  is  to  form  instructors,  intended  to 
diffuse  through  the  corps  a  uniform  system  of  instruction  in  every  thing 
relating  to  the  principles  of  equitation,  and  other  branches  of  knowledge 
appropriate  to  the  cavalry  arm. 

TITLE  I. 

OBJECT   OP   THE   SCHOOL   AND   DIVISION   OF   INSTRUCTION. 

Article  1.  The  instruction  at  the  cavalry  school  is  entirely  military, 
and  is  based  upon  the  laws  and  regulations  in  force  with  regard  to  the 
mounted  troops.     It  includes — 

1st.  The  regulations  for  interior  service. 

2d.   The  cavalry  tactics. 

3d.   The  regulations  for  garrison  service. 

4th.  The  regulations  for  field  service  applied,  as  far  as  possible,  on  the 
ground,  especially  with  regard  to  reconnoissances. 

5th.  A  military  and  didactic  course  of  equitation,  comprising  all  the 
theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  required  for  the  proper  and  useful 
employment  of  the  horse,  his  breaking,  application  to  the  purposes  of 
war,  and  various  civil  exercises. 

6th.  A  course  of  hippology,  having  for  its  object  practical  instruction, 
by  means  of  the  model  breeding-stud  attached  to  the  school,  in  the  prin- 


FRENCH   CAVALRY.  365 

ciples  which  should  serve  as  rules  in  crossing  breeds  and  in  raising  colts, 
to  explain  the  phases  of  dentition,  to  point  out  the  conformation  of  the 
colt  which  indicates  that  he  will  become  a  good  and  solid  horse,  the 
method  to  be  pursued  to  bring  the  colt  under  subjection  without  resist- 
ance, and,  finally,  to  familiarize  the  officers  and  pupils  with  all  the  know- 
ledge indispensable  to  an  officer  charged  with  the  purchase  and  care  of 
remount  horses.  This  course  will  also  include  notions  concerning  the 
horse  equipment,  which  will  be  derived  from  an  examination  of  the  saddle- 
factory  connected  with  the  school. 

7th.  Vaulting,  fencing,  and  swimming. 

Article  2.  The  number  of  horses  is  fixed  by  the  minister  of  war, 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  service;  the  number  of  troop-horses  is 
fixed  by  table  A,  appended  to  this  decree. 

The  number  of  young  horses,  for  breaking,  is  fixed  at  100  as  a  mini- 
mum. These  last  horses,  as  soon  as  their  education  is  complete,  are  sold 
or  given,  according  to  the  orders  of  the  minister  of  war,  to  those  officers 
who  need  a  remount, — in  preference,  to  officers  of  the  general  staff  and 
staff  corps,  those  of  the  artillery,  and  mounted  officers  of  infantry. 

These  officers  may  also  select  from  among  the  other  horses  of  the 
school,  with  the  approval  of  the  commandant  of  the  school. 

Article  3.  The  pupils  at  the  school  are : 

1st.  Officers  for  instruction. 

2d.   Sergeants  for  instruction. 

3d.   Corporals  for  instruction. 

Article  4.  The  full  number  of  the  divisions  of  officers,  sergeants,  and 
corporals  for  instruction  is  as  follows  : 

Officers  for  instruction,  2  divisions  (effective) 100 

Sergeants  "  1         "  "         40 

Corporals  "  4         "  «         240 

Article  5.  The  pupils  are  sent  to  the  school  by  order  of  the  minister 
of  war.  They  continue  to  be  counted  in  their  corps,  from  which  they 
are  considered  detached  during  their  stay  at  the  school.  They  receive 
additional  pay. 

TITLE  II. 

COURSE   OF   INSTRUCTION. 

Article  6.  The  courses  of  instruction  are  divided  into  2  years. 

Upon  their  admission,  the  pupils  take  up  the  first  year's  course ;  when 
they  have  passed  the  examination  at  the  close  of  that  year,  they  enter  upon 
the  course  of  the  2d  and  final  year. 

Article  7.  In  case  of  interruption  from  sickness,  pupils  may  repeat 
one  year's  course.     No  one  can  remain  more  than  3  years  at  the  school. 


366  THE  ARMIES  OF  EUROPE. 

Article  8.  A  council  of  instruction  is  charged  with  the  direction  of 
the  studies.  They  propose  useful  changes,  and  direct  the  progress  of  the 
studies.     They  are  charged  with  the  examinations. 

TITLE  III. 

THE   DIVISIONS   FOR   INSTRUCTION. 

Section  1. 

Officers  and  sergeants  for  instruction. 

Article  9.  The  officers  for  instruction  are  selected  from  the  regiments 
of  cavalry  and  artillery,  as  well  as  from  the  squadrons  of  the  trains  of  the 
parks  and  military  equipages.  Every  year  the  inspectors-general  desig- 
nate the  lieutenants  and  sub-lieutenants  who  can  profitably  follow  the 
course  at  the  school.  The  lieutenants  selected  must  not  be  more  than  36 
years  of  age,  the  sub-lieutenants  not  more  than  34. 

The  sub-lieutenants,  who  are  graduates  of  the  special  military  school, 
must  have  served  at  least  2  years  with  their  regiments  before  being  sent 
to  the  cavalry  school. 

Article  10.  The  sergeants  for  instruction  are  selected  from  the  artil- 
lery. Every  two  years  the  inspector-general  designates  sergeants  of  the 
regiments  of  artillery  and  the  squadrons  of  the  park-trains  to  be  detached 
from  their  corps  as  sergeants  for  instruction. 

Article  11.  The  officers  and  sergeants  sent  to  the  school  for  in- 
struction take  their  horses  with  them,  and  use  them  in  the  military  exer- 
cises. 

Article  12.  Those  who,  after  six  months'  trial  at  the  school,  are 
found  to  be  deficient  in  the  necessary  qualities,  are  sent  back  to  their 
regiments. 

Article  13.  Upon  the  recommendation  of  the  inspector-general  of 
the  school,  the  officers  serving  there  as  pupils  compete  for  promotion  by 
choice  with  the  officers  of  the  corps  from  which  they  are  detached. 

Article  14.  The  cavalry  lieutenant  for  instruction  who  graduates  first 
in  his  class  is  presented  for  the  first  vacancy  as  captain  instructor  that 
occurs  in  the  cavalry,  provided  he  has  the  seniority  in  his  grade  demanded 
by  the  law. 

The  cavalry  lieutenant  who  graduates  second  obtains,  under  the  same 
conditions,  the  2d  vacancy  of  captain  instructor,  provided  the  division  to 
which  he  belonged  consisted  of  more  than  30  members.  The  sub-lieu- 
tenant for  instruction  who  graduates  first  of  his  grade,  provided  he  is  not 
lower  than  10th  in  the  general  classification  of  the  officers  of  both  grades, 
is  presented  for  promotion  to  the  first  vacant  lieutenancy  that  occurs  in 
his  regiment. 


FRENCH    CAVALRY.  367 

Article  15.  Those  who  remain  3  years  at  the  school  are  not  entitled 
to  the  benefits  of  the  preceding  article. 

Section  2. 
Corporals  for  instruction. 

Article  16.  They  are  designated  every  year,  by  the  inspectors-gene- 
ral, in  the  regiments  of  cavalry  and  the  squadrons  of  military  equipages, 
from  among  those  who  have  the  greatest  aptness  for  equitation,  and  are 
most  deserving  on  account  of  their  conduct,  instruction,  zeal,  and  intelli- 
gence; those  who  are  recommended  for  promotion  in  their  corps  are 
selected  in  preference. 

They  must  not  be  more  than  25  years  old. 

They  are  sent  to  the  school,  by  order  of  the  minister  of  war,  on  the  1st 
of  April  of  each  year. 

They  remain  connected  with  their  corps,  from  which  they  are  regarded 
as  detached,  and  leave  their  horses  there. 

Article  17.  The  corporals  compose  2  squadrons,  commanded  by  cap- 
tains on  the  staff  of  the  school,  who  have  officers  for  instruction  under 
their  orders. 

Article  18,  The  corporals  for  instruction,  although  acting  in  the 
ranks,  continue  to  wear  the  distinctive  marks  of  their  grade,  and  receive 
the  pay  of  corporals  of  cuirassiers. 

Article  19.  Those  corporals  who,  after  spending  6  months  at  the 
school,  do  not  evince  the  necessary  qualifications,  are  sent  back  to  their 
regiments. 

Article  20.  When  they  have  passed  their  final  examination,  the  cor- 
porals for  instruction  are  promoted  to  be  sergeants,  vacancies  having  been 
reserved  for  them  in  their  own  regiments,  to  which  they  consequently 
return. 

Those  who  at  the  examination  at  the  close  of  the  first  year  are  in  the 
highest  third  part  of  their  class,  and  have  distinguished  tliemselves  by 
their  zeal  and  good  conduct,  may  be  at  once  promoted  to  be  sergeants  in 
their  regiments,  and  perform  the  duties  of  that  grade  in  the  squadrons  of 
the  school;  they  receive  the  pay  and  wear  the  distinctive  marks  of  their 
new  grade. 

Those  corporals  whose  final  examination  is  not  satisfactory  will  be  sent 
back  to  their  regiments  as  corporals,  unless  they  are  especially  authorized 
to  spend  an  additional  six  months,  or  a  year,  at  the  school. 

Article  21.  The  corporals  who  graduate  among  the  first  ten  of  their 
class  are  placed  on  the  list  of  sergeants  for  promotion  as  sub-lieutenants 
as  soon  as  they  have  completed  the  two  years'  service  as  sergeants  required 
bylaw. 


10  captains,  instructors, 


368  .THEARMIESOFEURO  P  E. 


TITLE  IV. 

STAFF   OF   THE    SCHOOL. 

Section  1. 

Composition  of  the  staff. 

Article  22.  The  staff  of  the  school  is  composed  as  follows  : 

1  general  officer,  as  commandant. 

1  colonel,  as  2d  commandant.  i 

1  lieutenant-colonel. 

1  chief  of  squadrons. 

1  major. 

'  of  whom  3  command  the  squadrons. 

2  perform  the  duty  of  captain  adjutant. 

2  in  charge  of  the  instruction  of  the  officers. 

1  in  charge  of  the  special  course  of  the  ser- 
geants. 

1  as  assistant  to  the  chief  riding-master  in  the 
school  for  breaking  young  horses. 

1  supernumerary  to  supply  vacancies. 
1  captain,  treasurer. 
1  captain  of  clothing. 

1  director  of  the  saddlery,  either  a  captain  or  lieutenant. 
1  assistant  treasurer,  either  a  lieutenant  or  sub-lieutenant. 
1  standard-bearer,  either  a  lieutenant  or  sub-lieutenant. 
1  veterinary  of  the  1st  or  2d  class. 
1  assistant  veterinary  of  the  1st  or  2d  class. 

(  3  for  duty  with  the  squadrons. 

4  non-commissioned  adjutants,  <  1    wagon-master,   also    in   charge   of 

I  library. 

C  3  for  duty  with  the  squadrons. 

5  first  sergeants,  <  1  master  farrier. 

1 1  master  saddler. 
13  sergeants,  one  of  whom  is  fencing-master. 
4  quartermaster-sergeants,  one  of  whom  is  attached  to  the  saddlery. 

1  corporal,  trumpeter. 

2  corporals,  farriers. 

2  corporals,  saddlers. 

3  corporals,  provosts. 

Article  23.  The  employes  in  the  riding-halls,  academy,  and  model 
stud,  are  military  or  civil ;  their  rank  and  precedence  are  as  follows : 


FRENCH   CAVALRY. 

1  chief  riding-master,  ranks  as  chief  of  squadrons. 
5  riding-masters,  who  rank  as  captains  j  one  of  these  may  be  the  di- 
rector of  the  stud,  and  professor  of  hippology. 

3  assistant  riding-masters,  who  rank  as  lieutenants  or  sub-lieutenants. 
1  master  of  the  riding-halls,  ranks  as  non-commissioned  adjutant. 

4  assistant  masters  of  the  riding-halls,  1  of  whom  ranks  as  first  sergeant, 

the  others  as  sergeants. 

The  direction  of  the  breeding-stud,  and  the  course  of  hippology,  may 
be  intrusted  to  a  civil  or  military  professor  other  than  a  riding-master,  or 
to  a  military  veterinary. 

Article  24.  The  medical  staflF  is  as  follows : 

1  chief  surgeon. 

1  surgeon  of  the  1st  or  2d  class. 

1  assistant  surgeon  of  the  1st  or  2d  class. 

1  chief  apothecary,  or  assistant  apothecary. . 

1  hospital  intendant. 

3  principal  hospital  attendants. 

7  hospital  attendants. 

Article  25.  There  are  attached  to  the  school — 

1  sergeant,  as  master  armorer. 

1  sergeant,  as  master  saddler. 

1  sergeant,  as  master  tailor. 

1  sergeant,  as  master  boot-maker. 

Article  26.  The  officers  composing  the  staff  are  authorized  to  have  the 
number  of  horses  allowed  their  grade,  with  the  exception  of  the  intend- 
ants  and  medical  officers,  who  are  only  authorized  to  have  their  govern- 
ment horses. 

Article  27.  Upon  the  recommendation  of  the  council  of  adminis- 
tration, the  minister  of  war  determines  the  number  and  duties  of  the 
administrative  employes  attached  to  the  school ;  also  the  number  of  sub- 
ordinate agents." 

For  additional  information  I  would  refer  to  the  copy  of  the  decree  of 
reorganization  accompanying  this  report. 

The  captains-instructor  of  the  cavalry  regiments,  and  the  instructors  of 
equitation  in  the  artillery  regiments,  are  mostly  selected  from  the  gra- 
duates of  this  institution. 

In  addition  to  the  subjects  mentioned  in  the  decree,  the  non-commissioned 
officers  are  instructed  in  the  theory  of  administration  and  accountability. 

The  text-books  are  as  follows :  The  Hippology  of  M.  St.  Ange ;  the 
Equitation  of  M.  d'Aure ;  the  Tactics  and  Regulations. 

The  recitations  are  by  sections  of  about  80  in  each. 

In  reciting  upon  the  general  principles  of  tactics,  equitation,  hippology, 


370 


THE   ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 


&c.,  the  manner  is  as  at  our  Military  Academy ;  when  Reciting  upon  the 
movements  in  tactics,  all  the  commands  and  explanations  of  the  instructor 
to  the  troops  are  repeated  "  verbatim  et  literatim,"  and  in  the  tone  and 
pitch  of  voice  used  in  the  field. 

Perfect  uniformity  of  tone  and  manner  is  required,  and  thus  obtained; 
the  object  of  reciting  in  this  manner  is  to  teach  the  pupils  the  proper 
tone  and  pitch  of  voice,  to  accustom  them  to  hear  their  own  voices,  and 
to  enable  them  to  repeat  the  text  literally  at  this  pitch  of  voice,  without 
hesitation  or  mistake. 

The  course  of  hippology  includes  the  structure  of  the  horse,  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  organs  of  respiration,  &c.,  food,  working-powers, 
action,  breeds,  manner  of  taking  care  of  him,  ordinary  ailments  and 
remedies,  shoeing,  lameness,  saddling,  sore  backs,  sanitary  police,  &c.,  but 
does  not  comprise  a  complete  veterinary  course. 

The  Augoux  models  are  employed,  in  preference,  for  demonstrations, 
and  are  considered  invaluable. 

The  officers  on  the  staff  of  the  school,  and  those  for  instruction,  lodge 
in  the  town ;  the  non-commissioned  officers  are  quartered  in  the  barrack. 
The  hospital  is  for  both  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers. 
In  the  kitchens,  the  Choumara  marmites  are  used. 
The  stables  have  already  been  described. 

In  accordance  with  the  system  now  adopted  in  France,  the  prison  con- 
sists of  small  cells,  opening  upon  a  corridor  which  communicates  with  the 
guard-room ;  the  system  of  solitary  confinement  is  resorted  to  as  the  only 
one  of  any  avail.  Each  prisoner  has  a  bunk,  mattress,  pillow,  and  blanket, 
belonging  to  the  prison.  At  Saumur  the  prisoners  are  obliged  to  have  some 
of  their  text-books  with  them. 

Forage-magazine. — The  following  sketch  represents  a  section  of  the 
forage-magazine;  there  is  a  staircase  at  each  end.     The  oats  are  kept 

loose  on  the  floor,  in  a  mass 
about  3'  deep;  a  winnowing- 
machine  is  provided  for  clean- 
ing it  before  issue. 

The  hay  is  purchased  in 
trusses  of  about  15  lbs.  each, 
and  is  put  up,  at  the  magazine, 
in  trusses  of  a  ration  each, 
by  hired  men.  The  straw  is 
stacked  in  piles  about  40' 
high,  in  the  open  air;  a  wall 
surrounds  the  whole  establishment.  Four  months'  supply  is  usually  kept 
on  hand.  The  purchase  and  issue  are  in  the  hands  of  an  officer  of  the 
inten  dance. 


FRENCH   CAVALRY.  371 

Riding-JiaUs. — There  are  three  of  these,  the  largest  being  280'  long, 
105'  wide,  and  25'  high.  The  roof-truss  of  wood,  supported  by  wooden 
arches,  which  extend  nearly  to  the  floor. 

The  galleries  in  the  middle  of  the  long  sides,  the  entrance-doors  at 
the  ends.  There  is  no  wainscot,  nor  are  the  corners  rounded  off.  The 
floor  is  of  sand  and  tan. 

The  large  riding-hall  is  stated  to  be  too  large  for  the  mere  riding-drill, 
and  is  sufficient  for  instruction  in  the  first  two  articles  of  the  platoon 
drill;  it  was  also  stated  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  it  large  enough 
for  all  the  lessons  of  the  platoon  drill.  The  second  riding-hall  is  about 
216'  X  60',  and  is  of  a  good  size  for  the  riding-drill.  The  best  shape 
for  a  riding-hall  is  said  to  be, — the  width  one-third  of  the  length.  Near 
the  large  riding-hall  there  is  a  target,  placed  against  a  brick  wall.  They 
practise  at  this  with  pistol,  carbine,  and  musket;  at  first  on  foot,  after- 
wards on  horseback. 

The  carbine  is  said  to  be  worthless,  because  it  is  inaccurate  and  is  apt 
to  burn  the  horse's  ears.  No  very  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained 
with  the  use  of  the  musket  on  horseback. 

Hurdles  about  2 2  feet  high  are  placed  near  the  target;  they  are  made 
of  very  flexible  withes,  in  order  not  to  trip  the  horse  if  he  strikes. 

The  practical  exercises  consist  of:  The  ordinary  riding-hall  drill, 
including  vaulting,  the  "  kickers,"  &c. ;  the  carri^re,  or  out-door  riding 
at  speed,  over  hurdles,  ditches,  &c. ;  cutting  at  heads;  target-practice; 
fencing;  swimming;  the  usual  military  drills;  skeleton  squadron  and 
regimental  drills ;  rides  in  the  country ;  finally,  in  the  summer,  frequent 
"  carrousels"  or  tilts  are  held. 

The  English  saddle  and  bridle  are  much  used  by  the  officers.  The 
saddle  for  the  "  kickers"  has  a  high  pommel  and  cantle,  and  no  stirrups. 

The  Baucher  system  was  fully  tried  at  Saumur,  and  I  was  informed  that 
it  proved  to  be  inapplicable  to  the  general  service.  Some  few  persons, 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  did  wonders  with  it;  but  it  generally  did 
harm,  and  is  regarded  as  a  very  dangerous  system  in  the  hands  of  most 
officers  and  men ;  it  is  not  at  all  in  use  at  Saumur,  or  anywhere  else  in 
the  French  service.  I  will  here  take  occasion  to  repeat  that  I  took 
especial  pains  to  make  inquiries,  in  relation  to  the  Baucher  system,  of  the 
cavalry  officers  of  all  the  countries  we  visited,  and  that  the  reply  was 
uniformly  the  same:  that  is,  that  certain  parts  of  the  system  (those 
relating  to  obtaining  command  of  the  muscles  of  the  head  and  neck) 
were  good,  and  could  be  applied  with  advantage  by  individual  officers  to 
their  own  horses,  but  that  the  system  would  never  answer  for  general 
introduction  in  the  service. 

In  addition  to  what  is  stated  in  the  decree  of  reorganization,  it  should 
be  said  that  the  non-commissioned  officers  sent  to  the  school  must  have 


372  THE  ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

served  as  such  at  least  one  year;  and  that  those  who  attend  the  school 
as  non-commissioned  officers  frequently  return  as  officers  for  instruction, 
and  again  in  a  higher  grade  on  the  staff  of  the  school.  The  officer  now 
second  in  command  has  been  at  the  school  in  every  grade  down  to  that 
of  lieutenant,  inclusive.  Officers  transferred  from  the  infantry  to  the 
cavalry  are  generally  sent  to  this  school  for  a  short  time  at  least. 

The  veterinary  surgeons  of  the  lowest  grade  are  sent  here  upon  their 
first  appointment  to  receive  instruction  in  equitation,  to  profit  by  the 
study  of  the  model  stud,  and  to  learn  the  routine  of  their  duties  with 
the  regiments;  they  form  a  separate  class,  under  the  direction  of  the 
stud.  In  the  Model  Stud  (Haras  des  Etudes)  the  number  of  animals 
varies.  There  are  usually  two  stallions  and  about  twenty  mares,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  selected  from  time  to  time  from  among  the  riding-animals. 
At  the  time  of  my  visit  one  of  the  stallions  was  a  superb  Arab ;  among 
the  mares  were  Arabs,  English,  Norman,  &c.  Each  animal  has  a  box 
about  15'  square. 

The  object  of  this  establishment  is  explained  in  the  ^^  decree."  At- 
tached to  it  is  a  botanical  garden,  more  especially  for  useful  and  noxious 
grasses  and  plants. 

The  horses  of  the  school  are  divided  into  two  sets, — one  for  the  riding- 
hall,  the  other  for  military  drills ;  there  are  about  240  of  the  former  and 
600  of  the  latter.  The  former  are  groomed  by  hired  men,  the  others  by 
soldiers  of  the  remount  companies,  who  do  not  belong  to  any  regiment. 

Each  man  has  four  horses  to  take  care  of,  and  has  nothing  else  to  do. 
The  horses  at  the  school  have  a  somewhat  larger  allowance  of  forage  than 
in  the  regiments,  and  are  far  better  animals  than  the  majority  in  the 
service. 

SCHOOL  FOR  BREAKING  YOUNG  HORSES. 

The  object  of  this  establishment  is  explained  in  the  decree.  The  best 
horses  purchased  at  the  remount  depots  are  selected  for  the  officers,  and 
«ent  to  this  place  to  be  trained. 

A  school  for  trumpeters  existed  at  Saumur  prior  to  the  war;  soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  war  it  was  broken  up, — to  the  regret  of  all  the 
officers. 

SCHOOL  OF  FARRIERS. 

This  is  attached  to  the  cavalry  school,  and  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  commandant.  Private  soldiers  who  have  served  at  least  six  months 
with  their  regiments,  and  are  blacksmiths  or  horseshoers  by  trade,  com- 
pose this  school.  There  are  usually  two  men  from  each  mounted  regiment; 
during  the  war  the  number  was  reduced  to  one  from  each  regiment. 
The  course  lasts  two  years.  It  comprises:  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
equitation,  the  anatomy  of  the  horse,  thorough  instruction  as  to  all 
diseases,  injuries,  and  deformities  of  the  foot,  something  of  the  veterinary 


FRENCH   CAVALRY.  373 

art  in  general,  the  selection  of  metals,  making  shoes,  nails,  tools,  &c., 
shoeing  horses. 

The  printed  work  on  farriery  (Cours  de  Marechalerie,  k  Saumur)  gives 
the  course  as  taught. 

This  establishment  has  a  large  shoeing  shop  and  yard,  with  some  12  or 
15  forges,  a  recitation-room,  museum,  and  store-rooms.  In  the  recitation- 
room  there  are  skeletons  of  horses,  men,  &c.,  as  well  as  some  admirable 
specimens  of  natural  preparations  in  comparative  anatomy,  a  complete 
collection-  of  shoeing-tools,  specimens  of  many  kinds  of  shoes,  «fec. 

In  a  recitation  of  the  lowest  section  I  heard  a  very  good  explanation 
of  the  skeleton,  muscles,  foot,  process  of  shoeing,  use  of  the  "  perpen- 
diculars," &c.,  from  different  pupils. 

This  school  has  been  in  existence  since  1826,  and  has  produced  most 
satisfactory  results.  Since  that  year  the  census  returns  have  shown,  it  is 
stated,  a  diminution  of  40  per  cent,  in  the  number  of  lame  horses  in 
France, — a  result  attributed  to  the  good  instruction  spread  through  the 
country  by  means  of  this  school ;  for  the  pupils,  upon  leaving  the  service, 
generally  establish  themselves  as  farriers  in  their  native  villages. 

All  the  horses  of  the  school  are  shod  here ;  also  those  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town   and   its  vicinity;   the   money  thus   earned   pays  the' 
expenses  of  the  school. 

The  shoes  are  made  altogether  by  hand,  and  are  rather  rough. 

For  small  feet,  6  nails  are  used ;  for  those  of  medium  size,  7 ;.  for  large 
feet,  such  as  those  of  cuirassier  horses,  8. 

As  the  regulations  require  the  method  of  cold-shoeing  to  be  used  in 
the  French  army,  that  alone  is  used  here,  and  is  as  follows : 

The  old  shoe  is  removed,  and  the  foot  prepared  to  receive  the  new 
shoe.  An  exact  impression  of  the  foot  is  then  taken  on  a  sheet  of  paper, 
which  is  laid  against  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  pressed  against  the  edge  of 
the  foot  by  the  hand. 

The  podometer  (which  is  either  a  thin,  flexible  bar  of  lead,  or  a  chain 
of  short,  stiff,  bar  links)  is  now  employed;  this  is  bent  to  the  exact 
shape  of  the  impression  on  the  paper,  and  serves  as  a  guide  and  measure 
in  forging  the  shoe. 

This  impression  is  taken  once  for  all,  for  each  horse. 

In  the  regiments,  each  farrier  has  a  register,  at  the  head  of  each  page 
of  which  are  inscribed  the  name  and  number  of  a  horse;  below  are  traced 
the  impressions  of  his  fore  and  hind  feet,  which  can  always  be  reproduced 
by  means  of  the  podometer,  or  a  paper  form.  Any  necessary  remarks,  as 
to  peculiarities  of  the  horse's  foot,  and  directions  for  shoeing  him,  are 
inscribed  by  the  veterinary.  A  note  is  made  in  the  register  every  time 
the  horse  is  shod. 

No  shoe  should  remain  on  more  than  from  30  to  40  days. 


374 


THE   ARMIES    OF    EUROPE. 


By  means  of  this  register  the  farrier  prepares,  at  his  leisure,  four  shoes 
for  each  horse,  which  number  should  always  be  on  hand ;  the  veterinary 
inspects  them,  sees  the  nail-holes  punched,  and  has  them  marked  with 
the  number  of  the  horse. 

On  the  march,  every  man  must  be  provided  with  4  shoes  thus  fitted, 
also  with  two  sets  of  nails. 

The  horses  are  not  taken  to  the  forge  to  be  shod,  but  the  operation  is 
performed  wherever  they  happen  to  be. 


r\ 


Fig.  1. 


[] 


B 


(On 

n              rfli 

J 

1 

n 4 

B 

-J 

__i$^MW« 

w 

b 

cr 

In  garrison,  they  leave  the  stable  only  long  enough  to  have  the  old 
shoe  removed,  the  hoof  trimmed,  and  the  new  shoe  nailed  on. 

At  Saumur,  the  registers  belong  to  the  school,  and  not  to  the  farriers ; 
the  horses,  too,  are  generally  taken  to  the  shop  to  be  shod. 

Another  register  is  kept  here,  in  which  is  recorded  the  work  done 
every  day,  giving  the  names  of  the  horses,  or  of  their  owners,  the  number 
of  shoes  put  on,  and  on  what  foot,  also  the  names  of  the  men  doing  the 
work,  so  that  they  may  be  held  responsible  for  any  work  badly  done. 

I  observed  at  this  school  an  arrangement  for  curing  contracted  heels; 


FRENCH  CAVALRY.  375 

it  is  said  that  by  means  of  it  very  bad  cases  are  permanently  cured  in  a 
few  months. 

The  sketches  on  page  374  show  the  arrangement. 

The  instrument  represented  by  figs.  1  and  2  is  applied  to  the  bars  of 
the  hoof;  turning  the  screw,  the  piece  B  recedes  from  A,  and  thus  opens 
the  heel;  a  shoe,  arranged  with  clips,  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  is  then 
put  on,  and  the  clips  retain  the  bars  in  their  new  position. 

The  hoof  is  opened  a  very  little  at  each  shoeing ;  it  is  necessary  to  be 
very  careful  in  the  application,  and  not  to  open  the  heels  too  much  at 
once, — frojn  jj^  to  ygg  of  an  inch  at  a  time.  It  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  rasp  down  the  hoof  and  soak  it  in  oil,  to  render  it  more  pliable. 

I  was  informed  that  perfect  success  attends  this  operation :  in  fact, 
they  showed  me  the  impressions  of  hoofs,  badly  contracted  originally, 
taken  at  different  times  during  the  process,  and  then  one  of  the  horses 
with  heels  apparently  in  good  condition,  and  without  clips  on  the  shoes. 

It  ought,  however,  to  be  stated  that  a  similar  process  is  referred  to 
by  Youatt,  (page  308,  Skinner's  edition,)  and  that  his  conclusions  are 
entirely  against  the  efficiency  of  any  such  process.  I  give  the  thing  for 
what  it  may  be  worth. 

Since  I  visited  Saumur  unaccompanied  by  the  other  members  of  the 
commission,  I  feel  that  it  would  be  improper  to  close  my  notes  upon  the 
school  without  calling  the  attention  of  the  Secretary  of  War  to  the  ex- 
treine  courtesy  and  kindness  I  met  with  on  the  part  of  all  the  officers  of 
the  school.  By  General  de  Rochefort,  the  commandant,  and  Colonel 
Schmidt,  the  2d  commandant,  I  was  placed  under  great  obligations  by 
their  personal  attentions,  and  the  patient  kindness  with  which  they — 
especially  the  latter — accompanied  me  through  the  different  parts  of  the 
establishment,  and  laid  open  all  things  for  my  examination. 

List  of  works,  hy  French  authors,  or  translated  into  French,  of  especial 
value  to  cavalry  officers. 
Bugeaud ;  Instructions  Pratiques,  pour  les  Troupes  en  Campagne. 
Bismajik;  Tactique  de  la  Cavalerie,  (trad,  par  Schauenberg.) 
Brack;  Avant-Postes  de  Cavalerie  Leg^re. 
Cours  d'Equitation  Militaire  de  I'Ecole  de  Saumur. 
Cours  de  Marechalerie  de  I'Ecole  de  Saumur. 
Cours  d'Hippologie — par  St.  Ange. 

Decker;  Tactique  des  Trois  Armes,  (trad,  par  de  Brack.) 
Decker ;  Traite  de  la  Petite  Guerre. 

FrMeric  II  (le  Grand) ;  Instructions  aux  Troupes  Leg^res,  &c. 
Jacquinot  de  Presle ;  Cours  d'Art  et  d'Histoire  Militaire. 
La  Roche  Aymon ;  Manuel  de  Cavalerie  L^g^re  en  Campagne. 

Maurice  de  Saxe ;  Mes  Reveries,  ou  Memoires  sur  1' Art  de  Guerre. 

23 


376  THE   ARMIES    OP   EUROPE. 

Memorial  des  Officiers  d'lnfanterie  et  de  Cavalerie. 

Muller ;  Th^orie  sur  TEscrime  k  Cheval. 

Ordonnance  sur  le  Service  Int^rieur  des  Troupes  k  Cheval. 
"  "  "  des  Armies  en  Cainpagne. 

"  "  "  de  Cavalerie  en  Campagne. 

'^  "  "  des  Places — pour  la  Cavalerie. 

Schauenberg ;  De  TEmploi  de  la  Cavalerie  k  la  Guerre. 

Des  Principes  qui  servent  de  Base  k  I'Instruction  etc.  de  la  Cavalerie 
— ^par  M.  F.  d'Ald^guier. 

The  following  are  standard  works  on  the  veterinary  art : 

Dictionnaire  de  M^decine,  de  Chirurgie,  et  d' Hygiene  V^terinaire, 
par  M.  Huetel  d'Arboval,  6  volumes. 

Traits  de  M^decine  V^t^rinaire  Pratique — ^par  L.  V.  Delwast,  3 
volumes. 

Nouveau  Dictionnaire  Pratique  de  M^decine,  de  Chirurgie,  et  d'Hy- 
gi^ne  Y^t^rinaire,  par  MM.  Bouley  et  Reynal. 

Recueil  de  M^moires  et  d' Observations  sur  I'Hygi^ne  et  la  M^decine 
V6t4rinaire  Militaire;  public  par  ordfe  du  Ministre  de  la  Gruerre,  6  volumes. 

Dictionnaire  d'Hjppiatrique  et  d'Equitation ;  par  Cardini,  2  volumes. 

Much  valuable  and  interesting  information  as  to  the  history  of  the 
horses  and  haras  in  France  is  to  be  found  in  a  published  report,  entitled 
Conseil  Sup^rieur  des  Haras,  Kapport  sur  les  Travaux  de  la  Session  de 
1850,  fait  par  M.  le  G^n^ral  de  la  Morici^re. 


ENGLISH   CAVALRY.  377 


ENGLISH  CAVALRY. 


The  Englisli  regular  cavalry  consists  of:  • 

8  regiments  of  household  troops — cuirassiers; 
7  regiments  of  heavy  dragoon  guards; 

3  regiments  of  heavy  dragoons  of  the  line; 

4  regiments  of  light  dragoons  of  the  line; 

5  regiments  of  hussars; 
4  regiments  of  lancers; 

1  regiment  of  Cape  mounted  riflemen. 

The  regiment  of  mounted  riflemen  has  12  troops;  the  other  regiments 
have  6  or  8  troops  each,  formed,  respectively,  into  3  or  4  squadrons. 

The  troop  is  the  unit  of  interior  service;  the  squadron  is  that  of  tactics. 

The  usual  strength  of  a  troop  of  the  guards  is :  1  captain,  1  lieutenant, 
1  cornet,  5  sergeants,  1  trumpeter,  1  farrier,  and  42  corporals  and  privates; 
in  other  regiments,  serving  at  home,  the  number  of  corporals  and  privates 
is  increased  to  58 ;  regiments  serving  in  India,  and  similar  stations,  have 
1  additional  lieutenant  and  70  corporals  and  privates. 

The  regimental  staff"  consists  of:  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant^colonel,  1  major, 
1  paymaster,  1  adjutant,  1  quartermaster,  1  surgeon,  1  assistant  surgeon, 
1  veterinary  surgeon,  1  sergeant  major,  1  chief  trumpeter,  1  armorer,  1 
chief  saddler,  1  schoolmaster  sergeant,  1  hospital  sergeant,  1  regimental 
clerk,  1  paymaster's  clerk. 

Some  regiments  have  2  lieutenant-colonels  and  2  majors. 

TACTICS   AND    INSTRUCTION. 

The  squadron  is  composed  of  two  troops,  and  is  divided  into  4  divisions. 
It  is  formed  in  two  ranks,  half  a  horse's  length  (4')  apart ;  the  files  have 
intervals  of  6"  from  knee  to  knee. 

The  squadron-intervals  are  equal  to  the  front  of  a  division;  tho^e  be- 
tween regiments  are  the  same,  allowing,  in  the  order  of  parade,  the  addi- 
tional space  necessary  for  the  band  and  staff. 

In  the  squadron  the  officers,  &c.,  are  posted  as  follows : 

The  commander  of  the  squadron,  (who  is  the  senior  captain  of  troop, 
and  is  called  1^  squadron-leader,")  one-half  a  horse's  length  in  front  of  the 


378  THE    ARMIES    OF    EUROPE, 

centre  of  thp  squadron;  the  commandan'ts  of  the  troops,  (called  ^'troop- 
leaders/')  at  the  same  distance  in  front  of  the  centres  of  the  troops;  the 
4th  officer  is  posted,  as  a  file-closer,  (he  is  called  "squadron  s^rrefile/') 
one-half  a  horse's  length  in  rear  of  the  centre  of  the  squadron ;  the  5th  and 
6th  officers,  (called  "troop  serrefiles,")  at  the  same  distance  behind  the 
centres  of  the  troops;  one  sergeant,  the  standard-bearer,  is  in  the  front 
rank  between  the  troops;  8  sergeants  are  on  the  flanks  of  the  divisions, 
in  the  fropt  rank,  all  covered  by  corporals  or  old  soldiers;* the  10th 
sergeant,  as  squadron-marker,  is  in  the  rank  of  file-closers,  one  horse's 
length  on  the  right  of  the  squadron  serrefile;  the  trumpeters  are  in  the 
rank  of  file-glosers,  behind  the  second  files  from  the  flanks  of  the  squadron ; 
supernumerary  officers  and  sergeants  and  the  farriers  are  distributed  in  the 
rank  of  file-closers. 

The  formations  are  by  single  file,  by  files,  by  sections  of  threes,  and  by 
threes,  as  in  the  Russian  system. 

The  front  of  column  is  increased  or  diminished  as  in  our  own  tactics. 

The  English  tactics  being  easily  obtained,  and  copies  of  it  being  in  the 
possession  of  the  War  Department,  it  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  give 
extracts  from  it. 

Much  of  the  preliminary  instruction  is  worthy  of  consideration :  it  is 
very  concise;  the  commands  are  generally  short,  and  it  should  by  no 
means  be  passed  over  by  officers  engaged  in  the  revision  of  our  own 
tactics. 

HORSE    EQUIPMENTS,  ETC. 

The  saddle  has  a  lower  cantle  and  pommel  than  our  Grimsley  saddle ; 
it  is  covered  with  leather.  •  ' 

The  snaffle-bit  is  attached  to  the  halter-headstall  by  a  chain  and  T ; 
the  curb  has  a  separate  headstall,  which,  on  the  march,  is  sometimes  taken 
off  and  hung  on  the  carbine-stock;  the  halter-shank  is  a  chain,  and  is 
worn  in  the  field. 

No  schabraque  is  worn;  the  pouches,  valise,  &c.,  present  nothing 
peculiar. 

There  is  a  difference  between  the  saddles  for  the  heavy  and  light 
cavalry. 

The  cavalry  are  arnied  with  the  sabre,  carbine,  and  pistol,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lancers,  who  have  two  pistols  and  a  lance  in  lieu  of  the 
carbine. 

The  sabre  is  long,  and  has  a  steel  guard ;  it  is  formed  rather  for  cutting 
than  fot  thrusting. 

Large  numbers  of  the  Drane  &  Adams'  revolvers  were  being  made  at 
Li^ge  for  the  English  cavalry ;  none  had  been  issued  in  the  Crimea. 

The  Cape  mounted  riflemen  have  a  sabre,  pistol,  and  a  carbine  with  a 
double  barrel. 


•   ENaLISH    CAVALRY.  379 

The  carbine  is  carried  in  a  boot,  and  has  also  a  sling. 

The  cartridge-box  is  suspended  from  a  shoulder-belt. 

The  heavy  cavalry  wear  helmets;  the  light  dragoons,  shakos;  the 
hussars,  fur  cylindrical  hats,  or  shakos ;  the  lancers,,  the  czapka. 

The  cuirassiers  have  both  breast  and  back  plate. 

The  frock-coat  was  in  course  of  adoption,  but  had  been  issued  in  the 
Crimea  to  only  a  few  regiments. 

In  the  Crimea,  the  cavalry  had  their  full  dress. 

The  horses  of  the  English  cavalry  are  large  and  excellent;  for  the 
heavy  cavalry  they  leave  nothing  to  be  desired.  It  may  be  a  question 
whether  they  have  light  cavalry,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  except, 
perhaps,  some  of  the  regiments  who  have  been  serving  in  India  and  are 
mounted  on  Indian  horses;  for  the  men  and  horses  of  the  light  cavalry 
are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  heavy,  and  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  they  would  stand  the  severe  work,  exposure,  and  short 
rations  which  usually  fall  to  the  lot  of  light  cavalry  in  campaign,  as  well 
as  the  less  imposing  but  lighter  and  more  active  material  of  the  light 
cavalry  of  other  nations. 

The  horses  are  usually  purchased  for  each  regiment.  • 

The  animals  in  the  Crimea  in  the  fall  of  1855  were  mostly,  I  believe, 
remount  horses,  sent  out  during  the  spring  and  sifmmer ;  they  were  gene- 
rally excellent  animals,  of  great  power  and  weight,  but,  although  in  fair 
effective  condition,  they  were  hardly  in  the  state  that  might  have  been 
expected  considering  the  small  amount  of  work  they  were  required  to 
perform.  They  were  encamped  upon  broken  ground,  where  but  little 
regularity  could  be  perceived  in  their  arrangement. 

The  men  were  under  canvas,  the  horses  generally  blanketed  at  the 
picket-ropes ;  in  some  few  cases,  exceptions  to  the  rule,  rough  stables  had 
been  constructed. 

The  picket-ropes  were  about  2'  from  the  ground,  and  fastened  to  stakes 
some  20'  apart ;  the  horses  secured  to  them  by  the  halter  chain  or  rope. 

The  camp-equipage,  coftking-utensils,  &c.,  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  of  the  infantry,  which  are  described  in  their  appropriate  place. 

TRANSPORTATION   BY    SEA. 

The  Himalaya  was  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  horse-transport;  the 
following  description  is  based  upon  notes  taken  during  a  visit  to  that 
vessel  in  the  harbor  of  Balaklava :  • 

She  is  an  iron  screw-ship  of  3,000  tons  and  700-horse  power,  and  can 
carry  380  horses,  as  follows :  on  the  spar-deck  200,  main  deck  130,  orlop- 
deck  50 ;  the  corresponding  number  of  troops  can  be  carried  at  the  same 
time. 

The  Himalaya  was  purchased  by  the  government,  and  commanded  by 


380 


THE    ARMIES    OF    EUEOPE. 


Captain  Priest,  R.N.     To  the  courtesy  of  that  very  intelligent  officer  we 
are  indebted  for  the  details  contained  herein. 

Fig.  1  (page  381)  is  a  section  through  the  side-boards  of  a  stall. 

Fig.  2,  a  longitudinal  section  along  the  axis. 

Fig.  3  is  the  plan  of  stall. 

A  represents  the  halter-rings. 

B,  the  hook  to  which  the  sea-halter  is  hung  when  not  in  use. 

C  and  E,  projected  buttons  for  securing  the  sling- ropes  shown  in  fig.  5. 

D,  sling-bolt,  for  sling  as  shown  4n  fig.  4. 

F,  hook  to,  which  the  land-halter  is  hung. 

Fig.  4  represents  the  canvas  sling  used  on  the  Himalaya. 
Fig.  5  represents  the  sling  as  recommended  by  Captain  Priest, 
I  and  which  he  intended  to  adopt. 

JL  The  tail-board,  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  is  permanently 

yy  I Y^  attached  to  the  rear  posts,  and  extends  to  the  floor;  it  is 
padded  nearly  to  the  bottom :  it  was  intended  to  replace  this 
by  a  board  of  the  same  width  as  the  side-boards,  and  rounded 
off  at  top  by  a  spar,  4^"  in  diameter. 

The  breast  and  side  boards  all  slip  in  grooves. 
The  side-boards  are  padded  on  both  sides;  the  breast-board 
on  top  and  towards  the  horse. 

The  material  used  is  felt,  or  raw  hide,  (the  latter  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  the  odor,)  stuffed  with  cow's  hair 
wherever  the  animal  can  gnaw  it,  with  straw  in  other  parts; 
the  pads  were  from  2"  to  3"  thick. 

The  feed-trough  is  of  wood,  the  edges  bound  with  sheet 
iron  or  zinc,  and  attached  to  the  head-board  by  two  hooks. 

The  feed-troughs,  head-boards,  and  stalls  are  whitewashed 
and  numbered. 

The  floor  of  the  stalls  is  raised  above  the  deck  on  buttons, 
and' is  divided  into  separate  platforms  for  every  two  stalls, 
so  that  it  can  easily  be  raised  to  clean  the  deck  beneath;  4 
strong  buttons  are  nailed  across,  to  give  the  animals  a  foot- 
hold. 

In  front  of  each  head-post  there  is  a  halter-ring. 

ifr .^1,         The  sea-halter  is  made  of  double  canvas,  2"  wide,  and  has 

S     two  ropes,  so  that  by  fastening  one  to  each  post  the  animal's 

jy  I     head  may  be  kept  still  and   he  cannot  interfere  with  his 

neighbor. 

The  slings  are^of  canvas,  of  the  shape- and  dimensions  given  in  the 

figures.     On  the  main  and  orlop  decks  the  sling-ropes  are  attached  to 

sling-bolts;  on  the  spar-deck,  to  a  button. 


Fig.  5. 


ENGLISH   CAVALBY. 


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382  THE    ARMIES   OF  EUROPE. 

It  was  intended  to  adopt  the  arrangement  shown  in  figure  5,  as  dimi- 
nishing vibration. 

At  sea,  the  sling  is  used  only  in  cases  of  necessity;  that  is,  when  the 
animal  shows  signs  of  weakness  in  bad  weather;  in  this  case,  about  1" 
play  is  given  to  the  sling,  as  it  is  only  intended  to  prevent  the  animal 
from  falling. 

The  same  sling,  with  the  addition  of  a  breast-strap  and  breeching,  is 
used  for  hoisting  the  animals  in  and  out. 

Whenever  it  is  possible,  a  staging  is  erected  alongside,  that  the  horses 
may  be  walked  on  and  oflf  the  ship. 

On  the  spar-deck  the  stalls  are  under  sheds,  every  eight  stalls  forming 
a  separate  set,  so  that  they  can  readily  be  moved  about  when  the  decks 
are  to  be  cleaned.  Water-proof  curtains  are  provided  for  the  front  and 
rear;  a  passage-way  of  2',  as  a  minimum,  is  left  between  the  sheds  and 
the  bulwarks. 

The  other  arrangements  are  as  on  the  other  decks. 

To  place  the  animals  in  the  stalls,  all  the  side-boards  are  taken  out, 
except  that  at  the  end  of  the  row ;  a  horse  is  then  walked  along  the  row 
to  the  last  stall,  and  the  other  side-board  put  up;  then  a  second  horse  is 
put  in  the  next  stall,  in  the  same  manner,  &c.  The  horses  should  always 
be  placed  in  the  stalls  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  accustomed  to  stand 
in  the  stable  or  at  the  picket-rope. 

If  it  is  desired,  during  the  voyage,  to  remove  any  horse  from  his  stall,- 
it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  breast-board  and  walk  him  out.  • 

All  wooden  parts  are  washed  with  some  disinfecting  compound,  or 
simply  whitewashed.     Chloride  of  zinc  is  freely  used. 

The  decks  are  washed  every  day,  and  the  stalls  cleaned  after  every  feed, 
— especially  at  7  p.m.  .  • 

From  the  spar  and  main  decks  the  stale  passes  off  through  the  scup- 
pers; from  the  orlop-deck  it  passes  to  the  hold,  and  is  pumped  off  by  the 
engine. 

Not  the  slightest  disagreeable  odor  could  be  detected  on  the  Himalaya, 

The  feed-troughs  and  the  nostrils  of  the  horses  are  washed  every  niorn- 
ing  and  evening  with  vinegar. 

For  every  8  stalls  a  scraper,  brush,  and  shovel  arfe  allowed. 

The  horse-guard  always  remain  at  their  posts,  and  send  for  the  farrier 
or  non-commissioned  officers  in  case  of  necessity. 

Great  attention  is  paid  to  ventilation.  Although  the  orlop-deck  is  so 
hot  that  the  animals  perspire  a  great  deal,  the  animals  carried  there  came 
off  the  voyage  in  better  condition  than  the  others. 

The  cavalry  soldiers  attend  to  the  horses.  So  long  as  cleanliness  is  pre- 
served, the  commander  of  the  ship  does  not  interfere  as  to  the  hours  of 
feeding,  &c. 


ENGLISH    CAVALRY.  383 

A  supply  of  forage  is  always  carried  on  board  the  ship.  The  veteri- 
naries  take  their  own  medicines  with  them. 

As  a  proof  of  the  perfection  of  the  system  pursued  on  the  Himalaya,  it 
should  be  mentioned  that  Captain  Priest  had  transported  3,000  animals 
while  in  command  of  her, — some  of  these  dii;ect  from  England  to  Balaklava. 
Out  of  this  number  but  three  (3)  died. 

The  usual  hours  for  feeding  are  6  a.m.,  IT  A.M.,  5^  p.m.;  if  any  horse 
refuses  his  food,  the  fact  is  reported  at  once.  The  horses  drink  con- 
densed steam. 

The  regulation  ration  at  sea  is:  10  pounds  of  hay,  6  pounds  of  oats,  i 
peck  of  bran,  and  6  gallons  of  water, — as  a  maximum. 

It  was  thought  that  this  was  generally  too  great,  and  that  two-thirds 
of  this  allowance,  except  the  water,  would  be  ample,  as  it  is  found  that 
there  is  great  danger  from  over-feeding  at  sea. 

No  grain  is  given  the  day  they  come  on  board, — only  a  mash  of  bran, 
which  latter  is  regarded  as  the  best  habitual  food  at  sea. 

In  concluding  this  subject  of  the  transportation  of  horses  at  sea,  I 
would  call  attention  to  the  little  work  of  Lieut.-Col.  Shirley  on  the  sub- 
ject; it  contains  many  excellent  hints;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  system  just  explained  is  founded  on  a  larger  experience  than  that  of 
Col.  Shirley. 

In  regard  to  the  transportation  of  men,  bunks  and  hammocks  are 
generally  used.  Standing  bunks  are  found  to  be  very  objectionable,  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  them  clean;  hammocks  are  regarded 
as  preferable  for  men  in  good  health,  while  many  officers  consider  it  best 
to  provide  neither  hammocks  nor  bunks,  but  to  allow  the  men  to  lie  down 
on  the  fore-decks  with  their  blankets  and  overcoats.- 

The  following  works  may  be  consulted  with  advantage,  as  containing 
useful  ideas : 

Cavalry  Outpost  Duty,  by  Lieut.-Col.  Von  Arentschildt. 

The  Cavalry  Sword  Exercise. 

On  the  Training  of  Cavalry  Remount  Horses,  by  Capt.  Nolan. 

Cavalry,  its  History  and  Tactics,  by  Capt.  Nolan. 


384  THE   ARMIES   OP   EUROPE. 


SARDINIAN  CAVALRY. 


This  consists  of: 

4  regiments  of  cavalry  of  the  line,  (heavy  cavalry.) 

6  regiments  of  light  cavalry. 

Each  regiment  consists  of  4  active  and  1  depot  squadrons,  and  has  a 
strength  of  about  35  officers  and  600  men. 

The  staff  of  a  regiment  consists  of:  ,1  colonel  or  lieutenant-colonel,  1 
major,  2  adjutants,  1  paymaster,  1  captain  and  1  lieutenant  of  clothing 
and  supplies,  1  chaplain,  2  surgeons,  2  veterinaries,  18  non-commissioned 
officers,  &c. 

Each  active  squadron  is  composed  of :     ' 

1  captain,  2  1st  lieutenants,  2  sub-lieutenants,  1  orderly  sergeant,  4 
sergeants,  11  corporals,  8  lance  corporals,  (or  Ist-class  privates,)  2  trum- 
peters; 2  buglers,  1  farrier,  1  saddler,- 110  privates. 

Each  depot  squadron  consists  of : 

1  captain,  1  1st  lieutenant,  1  sub-lieutenant,  1  orderly  sergeant,  2  ser- 
geants, 5  corporals,  and  10  privates.    . 

There  are,  in  addition  to  regiments  mentioned  above,  6  squadrons  of 
local  cavalry  in  the  island  of  Sardinia ;  the  composition  of  these  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  given  above. 

The.  four  regiments  of  heavy  cavalry  are  armed  with  the  sabre,  lance, 
and  pistols  j  they  wear  helmets. 

Of  the  five  light  regiments,  two  are  lancers,  armed  with  the  sabre, 
lance,  and  ^^ pistolon  ;^'  the  other  three  are  armed  with  sabre,  pistol,  and 
rifle. 

The  sabre  is  3'  long,  broad,  and  nearly  straight ;  it  has  a  steel  scabbard 
and  guard,  the  latter  solid  towards  the  blade;  the  gripe  is  unusually  long.- 

The  pistol  is  an  ordinary  percussion  horse-pistol,  carried  in  the  left 
holster,  and  secured  to  the  saddle  by  a  leather  strap  attached  to  the 
guard. 

The  rifle  has  a  barrel  30''  long,  and  is  carried  slung  over  the  left 
shoulder. 

The  "pistolon"  is  a  rifled  carbine  with  a  12''  barrel;  it  carries  a  spheri- 
cal ball,  and  gives  a  satisfactory  range. 


SARDINIAN   CAVALRY.  385 

Ifc  may  be  used  either  as  a  pistol  or  carbine,  although  the  stock  does 
not  detach ;  it  is  habitually  carried  in  the  right  holster,  but  there  is  also 
a  common  carbine-sling  for  it ;  there  is  also  a  hook  on  one  side  of  the 
stock,  so  that  the  men  can  hook  it  to  the  waist-belt  when  they  dismount. 

The  lance  is  about  9^'  long,  with  a  bayonet-point,  and  a  button  at  the 
end  of  the  shaft;  a  strap  of  steel,  5'  long,  is  screwed  to  the  shaft;  pennon, 
dark  blue. 

The  sabre-belt  is  much  like  our  own. 

The  cartridge-box  contains  30  rounds,  and  is  suspended  by  a  shoulder- 
belt  ;  the  pistol-rammer  is  attached  to  this  belt. 

The  saddle  is  a  bare  wooden  tree,  very  similar  to  the  Hungarian ;  a 
small  pad  and  a  schabraque  are  laid  on  top.  A  common  blanket,  folded 
in  12  thicknesses,  is  placed  under  the  saddle.  Girth  and  surcingle  of 
leather ;  stirrups  of  steel,  and  light. 

•  The  snaffle  is  attached  to  the  halter-headstall  by  a  chain  and  T ;  the 
curb  is  also  of  steel,  and  has  a  separate  headstall,  to  which  it  is  buckled. 

The  valise  is  of  cloth,  and  24"  long ;  a  shelter-tent,  like  that  of  the 
French,  is  carried  under  the  valise-flap. 

Spurs  of  steel,  and  fastened  permanently  to  the  toots. 

All  the  cavalry  wear  a  dark-blue  frock-coat,  with  short  skirts ;  pants 
and  overcoat  very  nearly  of  the  same  color  as  our  own.  The  cap  resem- 
bles our  dragoon  shako  very  closely ;  it  has  a  yellow  water-proof  cover, 
the  hind  flap  of  which  ties  over  the  shako,  and  a  red  spherical  pompon ; 
there  is  also  a  cover  for  the  pompon. 

The  seat  of  the  pants  is  re-enforced  with  cloth.,  the  bottom  of  the  legs 
with  leather ;  the  straps  button  on  one  side,  and  buckle  on  the  other ;  the 
pants  have  a  black  stripe. 

In  the  Crimea  there  were  4  squadrons  of  light  cavalry,  two  of  which 
were  lancers;  the  squadrons  were  about  130  strong.  The  ration  of  forage 
was  11  pounds  of  hay,  and  8  quarts  of  barley. 

The  horses  were  partly  attached  to  the  picket-rope  by  the  right  fore- 
foot ;  some  of  them  by  a  rope  or  strap  attached  to  a  collar. 

Their  horses  seemed  to  be  excellent  animals,  but  rather  low  in  flesh ; 
they  were  mostly  Italian  animals. 

The  appearance  of  the  Sardinian  cavalry,  as  indeed  was  that  of  their 
whole  army  in  the  Crimea,  was  excellent;  indeed,  the  general  appearance 
of  their  army  was  superior  to  that  of  either  of  their  allies. 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  no  cuirassiers'  in  the  Sardinian  army; 
and  that  their  heavy  cavalry  differs  from  the  light  only  in  the  size  of  the 
men  and  horses. 


UNITED  STATES  CAVALRY, 


UNITED   STATES   CAVALRY. 


The  nature  of  cavalry  service  in  the  United  States  being  quite  different 
from  that  performed  by  any  in  Europe,  we  ought  not  to  follow  blindly  any 
one  system,  but  should  endeavor  to  select  the  good  features,  and  engraft 
them  upon  a  system  of  our  own. 

The  proper  organization  of  our  cavalry  must  depend  upon  the  con- 
sideration of  three,  things:  1st,  the  nature  of  its* service  against  the 
Indians;  2d,  its  employment  against  a  civilized  enemy  invading  our  terri- 
tory; 3d,  its  service  in' an  offensive  war,  carried  on  against  pur  neighbors. 

The  Indians,  against  whom  our  cavalry  are  brought  to  bear,  are  gene- 
rally irregular  light  horsemen,  sometimes  fiving  and  acting  altogether  on 
the  plains,  in  other  localities  falling  back  into  the  broken  country  when 
pursued:  the  difficulty,  always,  is  to  catch  them;  to  do  so,  we  must  be  as 
light  and  quick  as  they  are,  and  then  superiority  of  weapons  and  dis- 
cipline must  uniformly  give  us  the  advantage. 

Any  army  invading  our  territory  must  necessarily  be  deficient  in 
.cavalry;  in  addition,  the  nature  of  the  parts  of  our  frontiers  most  liable 
to  attack  is  not  suited  to  the  action  of  large  bodies  of  cavalry,  while  in 
partial  operations,  light  cavalry,  well  handled,  ought  always  to  be  superior 
to  heavy  cavalry. 

Canada,  Central  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies,  are  also  unsuited  to  the 
operations  of  masses  of  cavalry,  and  in  none  of  them  are  we  likely  to 
encounter  heavy  cavalry,  or  large  numbers  of  light  cavalry;  infantry  aud 
artillery  must  generally  do  most  of  the  work,  while  light  cavalry  will 
afford  invaluable  assistance,  and  in  Northern  Mexico  play  an  important 
part. 

It  would,  therefore,  seem  that  heavy  cavalry  would  be  worse  than  use- 
less for  our  purposes,  and  that  we  need  only  light  cavalry,  in  the  true 
and  strictest  sense  of  the  term. 

I  would  propose  that  the  regiments  serving  in  localities  where  they  are 
liable  to  be  called  upon  to  dismount,  to  follow  the  Indians  on  foot,  be 
armed  with  the  sr.bre,  of  a  light  pattern,  the  revolver,  and  the  pistol- 
carbine,  or  else  a  rifled  weapon,  longer  and  more  effective  than  the  present 


unitedl  states  cavalry.  387. 

carbine;  that  those  serving  on  the  plains  be  armed  only  with  the  sabre 
and  revolver,  giving  to  about  10  men  in  each  platoon  the  pistol-carbine, 
or  a  long  rifled  carbine,  in  addition. 

The  accoutrements  should  be  so  arranged  that  when  the  men  dismount 
to  fight  on  foot,  they  can  hang  the  sabre  to  the  saddle;  the  pistol  should 
always  be  carried  on  the  person ;  the  carbine  slung  over  the  shoulder. 

The  horses  should  be  purchased  by  cavalry  officers,  and  be  selected  for 
activity,  "hardiness,  and  endurance. 

The  men  ought  to  be  light,  active,  and  intelligent. 

The  tactical  unit  should  be  small,  that  it  may  be  handled  with  the 
greatest  possible  ease  and  celerity,  and  that  it  may  never  be  broken.  The 
regiments,  also,  should  be  small,  for  the  same  reasons. 

The  FORMATION  OUGHT  TO  BE  IN  ONE  RANK,  as  covcring  the  greatest 
extent  of  ground,  admitting  the  most  rapid  movements,  and  bringing 
every  man  to  be^r  to  the. greatest  advantage;  suitable  reserves  should 
always  be  held  in  hand. 

I  would  propose,  as  the  unit,  for  interior  service,  and  tactical  purposes, 
the  company,  composed  as  follows : 

1  captain. 

3  lieutenants. 

1  orderly  sergeant. 

1  quartermaster  sergeant. 
1*  veterinary  sergeant. 

4  duty  sergeants. 
8  corporals,      i 
66  privates. 

2  trumpeters. 
1  farrier. 

1  saddler. 

Total,  4  officers,  85  non-commissioned  officers  and  men. 

Of  this  number,  6  privates  and  the  saddler  to  be  dismounted,  leaving 
the  effective  force  of  combatants,  4  officers,*78  men,  and  78  government 
horses.  *  *  .  • 

It  would  be  advantageous  to  create  the  grade  of  first-class  privates,  say 
20  in-  each  company,  as  a  means  of  rewarding  good  and  faithful  old 
soldiers  who  are  not  fitted  to  become  non-commissioned  officers ;  they 
should  receive  somewhat  more  pay  than  the  second-class  privates.  The 
company  to  be  divided  into  two  platoons,  four  sections,  and  sets  of  fours. 
The  lieutenants  and  non-commissioned  officers  to  be  attached  to  the  same 
platoon  and  section,  for  the  purposes  of  drill  and  interior  service. 

The  posts  of  the  officers,  &c.,  to  be  as  follows : 

The  captain  in  the  rank,  between  the  platoons;  when  necessary,  he  can 
move  to  the  front,  his  place  being  left  vacant;  the  1st  lieutenant,  com- 


.388  UNITED   STATES    CAVALRY. 

manding  the  1st  platoon,  on  the  right  of  the  company;  the  2d  lieutenant, 
commanding  the  2d  platoon,  on  the  left  of  the  company;  the  3d  lieu- 
tenant, as  file-closer,  4  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre;  this  officer  not  to  be 
replaced  if  absent;  the  orderly  sergeant,  as  file-closer,  two  paces  behind 
the  right  file;  the  quartermaster  sergeant,  two  paces  in  rear  of  the  left 
file ;  the  veterinary  sergeant,  half-way  between  the  orderly  sergeant  and 
the  1st  corporal;  the  1st  duty  sergeant,- on  the  right  of  the  1st  platoon; 
the  2d,  on  the  left  of  the  2d  platoon;  the  3d,  on  the  left  of  the  1st  pla- 
toon; the  4th,  on  the  right  of  the  2d  platoon;  the  1st  corporal,  as  file- 
closer,  2  paces  in  rear  of  the  centre  of  the  1st  section;  the  2d,  behind 
the  4th  section;  the  3d,  behind  the  2d  section;  the  4th,  behind  the  3d 
section;  the  5th,  to  be  the  left  file  of  the  1st  section;  the  6th,  to  be  the 
right  file  of  the  4th '  section ;  the  7th,  to  be  the  right  file  of  the  2d  sec- 
tion; the  8th,  to  be  the  left  file  of  the  3d  section;  the  buglers,  2  paces 
behind  the  2d  files  from  the  inner  flanks  of  the  platoons;  the  farrier^ 
half-way  between  the  quartermaster  sergeant  and  the  2d  corporal;  the. 
saddler  and  the  dismounted  men  to  remain  with  the  train. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  strength  of  the  company  is  the  same  as  now 
authorized ;  it  requires  another  lieutenant,  in  place  of  the  brevet  2d  lieu- 
tenant, and  the  addition  of  2  sergeants,  1  veterinary,  4  corporals,  and  1 
saddler,  while  the  number  of  privates  is  diminished  by  8. 

Regiments  composed  of  6  companies  would  be  preferable  to  the  present 
organization ;  by  the  addition  of  2  companies  to  the  40  now  in  service,  7 
effective  regiments  would  be  formed. 

If  this  cannot  be  don'e,  it  would  be  well  to  decrease  the  number  of 
companies  in  a. regiment  to  8,  and  form  a  5th  regiment  of  the  8  super- 
fluous companies.' 

If  neither  of  these  plans  can  be  adopted,  it  is  believed  that  the  modifi- 
cation proposed  in  the  organization  of  the  company  will  of  itself  produce 
very  beneficial  results. 

To  the  staff  of  each  regiment  there  should  be  added  a  chief  veterinary, 
with  the  rank  of  sergeant  major,  or  even  as  a  commissioned  officer,  and  a 
chief  saddler ;  to  the  standard-cempany  there  should  be  allowed  an  addi- 
tional sergeant  as  standard-bearer,  and  a  corporal  as  assistant,  or  these  two 
non-commissioned  officers  might  be  attached  to  the  staff.  * 

If  a  band  is  considered  necessary,  the  men  ought  to  be  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  staff,  in  addition  to  the  usual  strength  of  the  regiment, 
and  not  to  be  subtracted  from  the  strength  of  the  companies ;  it  should 
be  supported  by  the  government,  and  not  by  the  officers  and  regimental 
fund.. 

It  would  be  advisable  that  the  hospital  attendants  be  placed  on  the  same 
footing ;  and  that  a  proper  number  of  teamsters  be  authorized  for  the  staff 
and  each  company,  to  be  enlisted  or  hired  as  such,  and  not  detailed  from 


UNITED  STATES  CAVALRY.  389 

tlie  companies }  those  for  the  companies  should  be  under  the  sole  control 
of  the  captains. 

The  junior  field  officers  should  have  a  direct,  specific,  and  well-defined 
authority  over  a  certain  number  of  companies,  the  colonel  taking  the 
general  direction ;  in  a  new  organization  it  would  be  well  to  have  1  field 
officer  for  every  2  companies. 

It  ought  to  be  laid  down  that  detachments  shall  always  be  composed  of 
men  of  the  same  company,  and  never  of  details  from  different  companies; 
in  the  same  company  platoons  or  sections  with  their  own  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  detached  as  units. 

If  legislation  is  called  for,  and  obtained  in  effecting  a  reorganization 
of  our  cavalry,  I  think  that  it  would  be  advisable  to  call  the  unit  a  squad- 
ron, instead  of  company,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  'the  infantry  unit 
in  reports,  returns,  &c.,  without  the  necessity  of  circumlocution.  It  is 
also  of  importance  to  obtain  authority  to  enlist  supernumerary  recruits, 
who  might  be  kept  at  the  cavalry  school,  or  the  European  system  of  depot 
squadrons  might  be  adopted ;  in  time  of  war  this  system  will  be  found  to 
be  absolutely  necessary  to  maintain  the  cavalry  regiments  in  a  state  of 
efficiency,  and  the  requisite  laws  should  be  obtained  in  time  of  peace,  that 
there  may  be  no  delay  in  taking  the  proper  measures  at  the  right  time. 

A  proper  organization  would  authorize  a  moderate  number  of  super- 
numerary officers  of  all  grades,  for  detail  upon  detached  duty,  so  that  the 
full  number  required  by  the  tactics  might  always  be  present  with  the 
regiments  and  companies. 

The  efficiency  of  the  arm  would  be  increased  were  there  a  general  of 
cavalry,  whose  duty  it  would  be  to  inspect  the  troops  of  the  arm,  watch 
over  their  interests,  and  secure  uniformity  in  the  serviced  This  officer 
ought  to  have  a  number  of  aides-de-camp,  all  cavalry  officers,  who  could 
make,  under  his  orders,  more  frequent  inspections  than  any  one  man  could 
accomplish. 

TACTICS. 

The  individual  instruction  of  man  and  horse  should  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  point  of  the  whole  system,  and  should  be  as  simple  as 
possible ;  the  man  should  be  taught  to  manage  his  horse  with  ease  and 
address  over  all  kinds  of  ground  and  at  all  gaits,  to  swim  rivers,  to  go 
through  certain  gymnastic  exercises, — such  as  vaulting, — to  fence,  to  fire 
very  frequently  at  a  mark,  and  to  handle  his  weapon  with  accuracy  and 
effect  at  all  gaits  and  in  all  situations. 

Some  of  the  preliminary  instruction  prescribed  in  the  Russian  and 
Austrian  tactics  might  be  introduced  advantageously. 

Every  thing  in  reference  to  heavy  cavalry,  lancers,  hussars,  &c.,  slj^ould 

be  omitted. 

« 

I  would  adopt  the  Russian  sabre  exercise  as  the  basis  of  our  own ;  in- 


390    *        UNITED  STATES  CAVALRY. 

sist  upon  the  sabre  being  kept  sharp  in  the  field,  provide  the  men  with 
means  of  doing  so,  and  lay  it  down  as  a  rule  that  the  strength  of  cavalry 
is  in  the  "  spurs  and  sabre." 

The  instruction  on  foot  should  be  carried  no  further  than  its  true  object 
requires;  that-  is,  to  bring  the  men  under  discipline,  improve  their  car- 
riage, and  enable  them  to  comprehend  the  movements  they  are  to  execute 
mounted. 

The  formation  for  review,  parade,  inspection,  &c.,  to  be :  the  companies 
deployed  in  one  line,. with  intervals  of  12  paces,  or  else  in  a  line  of  col- 
umns of  companies  by  platoons,  according  to  the  ground. 

The  Russian  tactics  will  suggest  excellent  arrangements  for  the  orders 
of  battle  of  commands  composed  of  regiments  jtiaving  ten,  or  fewer,  com- 
panies, also  for  the  movements  of  brigades,  divisions,  &c. 

It  should  be  laid  down  as  a  fixed  i-ule  that  no  cavalry  force  should  ever 
charge  without  leaving  a  reserve  behind  it,  and  that  against  civilized 
antagonists  the  compact  charge  in  line  should  be  used,  in  preference  to 
that  as  foragers. 

Columns  to  be  formed  with  wheeling  distance,  and  closed  in  mass ; 
when  closed  in  mass,  the  file-closers  close  up  to  1  pace  from  the  rank, 
and  the  distance  between  the  subdivisions  to  be  just  enough  to  permit 
each  company  to  wheel  by  fours. 

Marching  columns  to  be  by  file,  twos,  fours,  or  platoons ;  by  fours  and 
platoons  in  preference  when  the  ground  permits. 

Columns  of  manoeuvre  to  be  by  foursj  platoons,  companies,  or  in  double 
column ;  the  latter  always  a  regimental  column,  and  to  be  formed  on  the 
two  central  companies,  or  platoons,  without  closing  the  interval  between 
them. 

Deployments  to  be  made  habitually  at  a  gallop,  and  the  individual 
oblique  to  be  used  as  much  as  possible. 

The  instruction  in  two  lines  to  be  provided  for. 

The  Russian  tactics  give  a  good  basis  for  the  system  of  skirmishers,  and 
charging  as  foragers. 

For  the  use  of  the  mounted  rifles,  and  cavalry  acting  as  such,  there 

should  be  a  thorough  g^ystem  for  dismounting  rapidly,  and  fighting  on 

foot. 

CAVALRY  SCHOOL  AND  DEPOT. 

1st.  To  afford  the  young  officers  of  mounted  regiments,  before  joining 
their  regiments,  thorough  instruction  in  the  tactics,  regulations  for 
interior  service,  the  general  principles  of  field  service,  all  necessary 
knowledge  in  regard  to  the  horse,  the  use  of  weapons,  &6. 

2d.  To  perfect  the  instruction  of  lieutenants  now  serving  with  the 
regiments  in  the  same  branches. 

3d.  The  instruction  of  non-commissioned  officers  sent  from  the  regi- 


UNITED  STATES  CAVALRY.  391 

ments :  it  would  be  advisable  to  detail  picked  corporals,  and  insure,  to 
a  certain  number  of  the  best,  promotion  as  sergeants  immediately  upon 
leaving  the  school. 

4th.  To  instruct  the  recruits,  that  they  may  be  well  drilled  and 
thoroughly  instructed  before  joining  their  regiments. 

5th.  To  break  the  remount  horse,  so  that  each  recruit  may  take  a  well- 
broken  horse  with  him  when  he  joins  his  regiment,  and  that  other  re- 
mount horses  may  also  be  broken  before  being  sent  to  the  regiments. 

6th.  A  veterinary  school  should  be  attached  to  the  establishment,  for 
the  instruction  of  officers  and  veterinaries. 

7th.  A  school  for  farriers. 

8th.  A  school  for  trumpeters. 

The  systems  of  instruction  and  the  organization  of  the  French  veteri- 
nary schools,  and  of  the  cavalry  school  at  Saumur,  afford,  perhaps,  the 
most  accessible  models  for  the  basis  of  our  own.  The  text-books  there 
in  use  can  readily  be  adapted  to  our  own  purposes,  until  experience 
enables  us  to  have  others  of  our  own. 

As  a  first  step,  we  should  have  detailed  special  regulations  for  the  use 
of  mounted  troops  in  garrison  and  the  field. 

To  establish  the  veterinary  school,  I  would  propose  the  following,  as 
probably  the  best  and  easiest  plan  : 

Select  an  army  surgeon  who  has  served  in  the  field  with  cavalry,  is 
a  good  judge  of  horses,  has  turned  his  attention  somewhat  to  the  subject, 
and  would  be  willing  to  assume  the  proposed  duty ;  place  him  at  the  head 
of  the  veterinary  school,  and  let  him  prepare  the  necessary  course  of  in- 
struction and  text-books.  In  the  first  instance,  at  least,  his  assistants 
should  also  be  of  the  medical  staff. 

It  is  very  certain  that  no  officer  of  the  line  possesses  the  technical  and 
anatomical  knowledge  necessary  to  initiate  an  establishment  of  this  kind. 

Even  if  the  school  proposed  cannot  be  er^tablished,  there  ought  to  be  a 
work  prepared  by  some  of  the  medical  corps  on  the  veterinary  science, 
for  the  use  of  cavalry  officers.  A  small  work  on  farriery  would  also  be 
very  serviceable. 

The  pupils  for  the  veterinary  school  might  be  selected  from  among  the 
best  recruits ;  indeed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  advantages  of  such  an 
institution  would  induce  excellent  men  to  enlist,  for  the  purpose  of  avail- 
ing themselves  of  its  benefits.  Should  such  be  found  to  be  the  result,  it 
would  then  be  well  to  require  them  to  enlist  for  longer  than  the  usual 
time,  as  a  compensation  for  the  time  spent  at  the  school.  The  pupils  at 
the  farrier  school  should  be  recruits  who  are  blacksmiths  by  trade. 

All  the  advantages  of  extra-duty  pay  ought  to  be  secured  both  to  the 
veterinaries  and  farriers. 

24 


392  UNITED    STATES    CAVALRY. 


PURCHASE  OF  HORSES. 

It  would  be  advantageous  to  detail  officers  of  cavalry  on  this  duty,  just 
as  they  now  are  for  the  recruiting  service.  In  cases  when  cavalry  officers 
are  recruiting  in  districts  where  horses  abound,  they  could  attend  to  both 
duties  at  the  same  time. 

It  might  at  present  be  proper  to  select  the  purchasing  officers  for  their 
knowledge  of  horses ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  eifect  of  the  education 
received  at  the  proposed  cavalry  school  would  be  such  that,  in  a  few  years, 
all  officers  would  be  capable  of  purchasing.  Animals  bought  in  this 
way,  as  occasion  offered,  and  not  in  large  numbers  at  a  time,  would  be 
obtained  for  a  more  moderate  price,  and  more  careful  selections  could  be 
made. 

They  should  all  be  sent  to  the  cavalry  school,  when  the  commandant, 
and  a  certain  number  of  the  senior  officers  on  duty  there,  would  constitute 
a  proper  commission  to  inspect  the  animals  and  direct  the  service. 

There  should  be  regulations  determining  approximately  the  height,  age, 
conformation,  and  qualities  that  the  horses  should  possess ;  also  a  maxi- 
mum, or  rather  an  average,  price,  varying  from  time  to  time,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  market. 

UNIFORM. 

I  would  recommend  that  the  epaulette  be  entirely  dispensed  with  for 
regimental  officers ;  it  is  useless,  expensive,  and  inconvenient :  the  strap 
on  the  undress  uniform  is  a  sufficient  distinction'  of  rank. 

For  the  men,  I  would  replace  the  scales  by  a  strap  of  cloth,  of  the  same 
shape  as  that  on  the  old  fatigue  uniform,  but  sewed  fast  to  the  jacket. 

They  should  also  have  a  police-cap,  without  visor,  and  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  can  be  folded  up,  and  carried  in  the  pouch,  or  wherever  may  be 
most  convenient;  the  Scotch  bonnet,  Turkish  fez,  a  Greek  cap  of  knit  or 
woven  wool,  a  flexible  cap  of  the  shape  of  the  old  forage-cap, — any  of 
these  would  answer. 

For  service  on  the  prairies,  the  men  should  have  a  loose  flannel  coat, 
leaving  their  uniform  coat  in  garrison ;  the  ordinary  dark-blue  sailor's 
shirt,  cut  open  in  front,  and  provided  with  a  lining  and  pockets,  is  as  good 
as  any  thing  that  can  be  devised. 

The  French  fashion  of  giving  the  men  a  merino  scarf  in  the  field, 
instead  of  a  stock,  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

It  would  be  well,  on  many  accounts,  to  re-enforce  the  pants  with  thin 
leather. 

The  amount  of  clothing  to  be  carried  by  each  man  should  be  limited ; 
I  do  not  see  that  they  need  more  than  2  pairs  of  drawers,  1  shirt,  2  pairs 
of  socks,  a  towel,  soap,  and  hair-comb,  in  addition  to  what  they  wear; 


UNITED  STATES  CAVALRY.  393 

during  very  long  expeditions,  extra  clothing  should   be  carried  in  the 
train, — never  on  the  horses. 

The  method  of  cold-shoeing,  as  described  in  the  report  upon  the 
French  cavalry,  should  be  enforced,  and  the  shoes  carried  by  each  man 
should  have  been  previously  fitted  to  the  horse. 

In  difi"erent  parts  of  this  work  will  be  found  full  information  as  to  the 
cooking-utensils  carried  in  the  field  by  the  European  cavalry ;  it  is  very 
important  that  competent  cavalry  officers  should  fully  consider  this  sub- 
ject, and  adopt  a  set  suitable  to  the  requirements  of  our  own  service ; 
the  proper  principle  would  be  to  have  small  messes  in  the  field,  each  mess 
consisting  of  the  smallest  number  that  are  likely  to  be  detached  as  a  unit, 
so  that  they  may  always  have  their  cooking-utensils  with  them;  the 
utensils  should  be  such  that  the  men  can  habitually  carry  them  on  their 
own  horses  with  convenience. 

I  would  recommend  that  the  shelter-tent  be  adopted  as  a  part  of  our 
system. 

The  best  model  for  a  cavalry  stable  should  be  adopted,  determining 
minutely  the  interior  arrangements  and  the  general  plan  as  far  as  possible; 
and  all  stables  built  hereafter  should  be  required  to  be  in  accordance  with 
this  plan ;  the  drawings  and  descriptions  furnished  by  the  different  members 
of  the  commission  will  afford  the  means  of  doing  this  understandingly. 

The  English  system  for  the  transportation  of  horses  by  sea,  as  followed 
in  the  Himalaya,  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  perfect  that  has  been  devised; 
sketches  and  a  full  description  of  this  will  be  forwarded  in  a  few  days, 
and  it  is  recommended  that  it  be  inserted  in  our  regulations,  and  adopted 
as  our  own  system. 

There  are  other  suggestions  as  to  the  regulations  and  the  service  which 
I  have  already  made  in  official  and  unofficial  communications;  I  will  here 
allude  again  only  to  the  propriety  of  inscribing  upon  the  colors  of  each 
regiment  the  names  of  the  actions  in  which  it  has  borne  an  honorable 
part,  and  of  placing  these  same  names  on  the  army  register,  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  the  officers  of  the  regiment ;  for  few  things  are  more  im- 
portant than  those  which  tend  to  inspire  and  preserve  a  feeling  of  pride 
in  the  regiment,  on  the  part  of  all  its  officers  and  men. 


APPENDIX. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  FIELD  SERVICE 
OF  CAVALRY  IN  TIME  OF  WAR. 


PART  I. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  TKOOPS  IN  THE  VICINITY  OF  THE 

ENEMY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

§  1.  The  principal  differences  between  marclies  near  the  enemy,  and 
those  during  peace,  are  : 

1st.  That  in  the  former  case  the  troops  are  not  so  much  divided,  but 
move  in  larger  bodies  than  in  peace. 

2d.  That  proper  precautions  are  observed  to  guard  against  sudden 
attacks. 

Remark. — In  time  of  war,  troops  so  far  from  the  enemy  as  to  be  in  no 
danger  of  attack  observe  only  a  part  of  the  military  precautions  indicated 
below,  increasing  them  as  they  approach  the  enemy. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ARRANGEMENTS   FOR  THE   MARCH. 

Article  1. 
General  arrangements  and  remarks  as  to  marches. 
§  2.  Military  marches  may  in  general  be :  1.  Offensive;  2.  In  retreat; 
3.  To  the  flank. 

§  3.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  troops  may  move  in  one  or  several 
columns. 

§  4.  They  move  in  several  columns  when  in  strong  force,  and  having 
convenient  roads,  neither  far  apart,  nor  separated  by  impassable  obstacles. 
But  if  it  is  necessary  that  a  great  number  of  troops  follow  the  same  road, 

395 


396  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

the  column  should  be  divided  into  echelons,  following  each  other  at  inter- 
vals, in  order  to  avoid  delay  from  crowding. 

§  5,  It  is  impossible  to  determine  with  exactness  the  intervals  between 
different  columns,  or  between  the  echelons  of  the  same  column;  these 
must  depend  upon  the  nature  and  relative  positions  of  the  roads,  as  well 
as  upon  the  strength  and  degree  of  independence  of  each  column.  But 
it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  these  distances  should  be  such 
that  the  commander  can  concentrate  and  form  the  whole,  or  at  least  the 
greater  part,  of  his  command  before  being  seriously  attacked. 

§  6.  For  the  details  of  the  distribution  of  the  troops  in  the  several 
columns  and  echelons,  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  tactics  for  the  formation 
of  general  columns  must  be  taken  as  guides ;  observing  that  each  fraction 
of  the  entire  force  must  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  always  form  promptly 
to  meet  the  enemy. 

§  7.  On  the  march,  cavalry  may  move  by  twos  or  by  fours,  but  in  pre- 
ference by  platoons  when  the  road  permits. 

Artillery  marches  by  piece  or  by  section. 

In  a  retreat,  those  parts  of  the  rear  guard  nearest  the  enemy  will 
always  march  by  the  rear  rank. 

§  8.  On  the  march,  the  distances  permitted  are :  between  companies, 
about  25  paces;  between  regiments,  about  50  paces;  between  brigades, 
about  100  paces. 

Article  2. 

Precautions  against  sudde^i  attack  to  he  observed  on  the  march, 
§  9.  To  secure  troops,  on  the  march,  against  sudden  attacks,  there  are 
sent  out  from  the  main  body :  an  advanced  guard ;  a  rear  guard ;  and 
Jlank  detachments y  or  guards. 

§  10.  During  offensive  marches,  the  advanced  guard  consists  of  one- 
fourth,  or  one-fifth,  of  the  whole  force ;  it  may  be  increased  or  diminished 
according  to  circumstances  and  the  judgment  of  the  commander.  Its 
purpose  is,  to  march  at  some  distance  in  advance  of  the  main  body,  in 
order : 

1.  To  observe  the  enemy  betimes,  and  give  early  information  of  his 
appearance,  strength,  and  direction  of  march. 

2.  Having  discovered  the  enemy,  to  follow,  never  losing  sight  of  him, 
and  endeavor  to  obtain  all  possible  information  concerning  him. 

3.  Should  the  enemy  approach  and  attack,  to  delay  him  long  enough 
to  enable  the  main  body  to  form  in  order  of  battle. 

4.  To  examine  the  country  in  advance,  and  remove  all  obstacles  from 
the  road. 

5.  During  the  arrangements  of  the  main  body  for  halting  or  encamp- 
ing, to  cover  it  on  the  side  of  the  enemy. 


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OF    CAVALJIY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  399 

§  11.  On.  the  march,  the  advanced  guard  should  be  sovfar  in  front  that, 
without  incurring  too  great  risk,  it  may  delay  the  enemy  long  enough 
to  enable  the  main  body  to  prepare  to  receive  him.  Therefore,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  advanced  guard  is  stronger  and  more  independent,  and  as 
the  time  required  for  the  formation  of  the  main  body  is  greater,  the 
farther  should  the  advanced  guard  be  pushed  forward,  up  to  one-half  a 
day's  march,  or  farther.  In  small  detachments,  not  requiring  much  time 
to  assemble  and  form,  the  advanced  guard  does  not  move  farther  than 
from  one  and  a  half  to  three  miles  in  front. 

Remark. — When,  under  peculiar  circumstances,  the  advanced  guard  is 
pushed  forward  a  considerable  distance,  and  therefore  exposed  to  a  sepa- 
rate defeat,  or  when  the  nature  of  the  ground  is  such  as  to  render  its 
retreat  difficult,  there  is  sent  out  from  the  main  body  an  "  intermediate 
detachment,"  which  holds  itself  in  echelon  between  the  two,  to  support 
the  advanced  guard  if  suddenly  attacked.  This  detachment  is  under  the 
orders  of  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard,  who,  upon  meeting  the 
enemy,  either  orders  it  up  to  assist  him,  or  falls  back  upon  it,  according 
to  circumstances. 

§  12.  For  the  protection  of  its  own  march,  an  advanced  guard  should 
have  an  advanced  guard  of  its  own,  consisting  of  one  or  more  companies, 
or  a  platoon,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  party  j  and  on  its  flanks, 
flank  guards,  each  of  a  platoon  or  section. 

Remark. — The  standard  is  always  left  with  the  main  body  of  the 
regiment. 

§  13.  The  advanced  and  flank  detachments  keep  themselves  at  from 
500  to  1,000  paces  from  the  head  and  flanks  of  the  main  advanced  guard, 
according  to  their  strength  and  the  nature  of  the  country. 

§  14.  These  detachments  send  out  patrols  in  front  and  on  the  flanks,  to 
examine  the  country  and  obtain  early  intelligence  of  the  enemy.  These 
patrols  are  usually  at  from  500  to  1,000  paces  from  their  detachments, 
and  ought  to  regulate  their  intervals  so  as  never  to  lose  sight  of  each 
other,  and  to  form  a  continuous  chain  around  the  head  and  flanks  of  the 
main  advanced  guard, 

§  15.  The  general  arrangement,  without  regard  to  the  ground,  of  an 
advanced  guard,  composed  of  10  companies  of  cavalry  and  6  pieces  of 
horse  artillery,  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

§  16.  An  advanced  guard  during  a  march  in  retreat  consists  of  a  small 
number  of  troops,  usually  determined  as  in  time  of  peace. 

Its  purpose  is : 

1.  To  open  the  way  for  the  main  body,  and  remove  all  obstacles  from 
the  road. 

2.  To  serve  as  the  escort  of  the  train,  which  should  move,  at  least,  as 


400  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

far  in  advance  of  the  main  body  as  it  does  in  rear  of  it  during  an  offensive 
inarch. 

§  17.  In  this  case,  the  advanced  guard  sends  out  front  and  flank  detach- 
ments and  patrols,  which  are  arranged  precisely  as  in  offensive  marches. 
Here  the  principal  object  to  be  kept  in  view  is  that  all  the  detachments 
may  be  promptly  united  at  any  moment. 

§  18.  During  an  offensive  march  the  rear  guard  is  formed  according  to 
the  same  principles  as  an  advanced  guard  during  a  retreat.  Its  duty  is  as 
follows : 

1.  To  watch  over  the  preservation  of  order  in  the  rear  of  the  column. 

2.  To  pick  up  stragglers. 

3.  To  protect  the  rear  of  the  column  and  the  train  against  sudden 
attacks  by  parties  of  the  enemy. 

§  19.  In  a  retreat,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  rear  guard  to  cover  the  move- 
ments of  the  main  body,  as  well  as  to  repulse  and  delay  the  enemy  in  every 
possible  manner.  In  this  case,  its  duty  becomes  as  difficult  as  that  of  the 
advanced  guard  in  an  offensive  march,  and  sometimes  more  so,  especially 
when  the  retreat  is  effected  in  sight  of  the  enemy.  The  rear  guard  must, 
at  every  favorable  point,  use  all  means  to  check  the  enemy,  and  thus 
render  it  possible  for  the  main  body  to  retreat  without  precipitation.  To 
effect  this,  it  should  always  be  much  more  independent  than  the  advanced 
guard  in  offensive  marches;  for  the  latter  can  always  retreat  upon  the  main 
body,  or  be  readily  supported  by  it. 

§  20.  With  regard  to  the  safety  of  the  main  body,  the  rear  guard  in  a 
retreat  observes  the  rules  laid  down  in  numbers  1,  2,  and  5  of  §  10. 

§  21.  The  strength  of  the  rear  guard  depends  upon  several  circumstances : 

1.  Upon  our  own  and  the  enemy's  designs. 

2.  Upon  the  proximity  of  the  enemy. 

3.  Upon  the  nature  of  his  operations. 

4.  Upon  the  distance  from  the  main  body,  and  the  order  of  march  of 
the  latter. 

If  the  enemy  pursues  vigorously,  or  if  the  main  body  ought  to  fall  back 
a  great  distance  behind  the  rear  guard,  then  the  latter  should  be  strong 
enough  to  operate  independently,  and  defend  itself  obstinately  in  all  favor- 
able positions.  Such  a  rear  guard  should  be  one-fifth,  or  even  one-third, 
of  the  whole  force. 

§  22.  The  rear  guard  should  cover  its  movements,  both  in  the  offensive 
and  retreat,  in  the  manner  laid  down  for  the  advanced  guard  in  §§  12, 13, 
and  14. 

§  23.  If  the  main  body  marches  in  several  columns,  all  the  rear  guards 
should  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  patrols.  They  ought 
also  to  move  in  line, — that  is  to  say,  on  the  same  general  line  perpendicular 
to  the  general  direction  of  the  march. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF   WAR.  401 

§  24.  To  the  advanced  guard  in  all  cases,  and  to  the  rear  guard  in 
retreat,  mounted  engineer  troops  are  attached ;  in  default  of  these,  mounted 
working-parties  with  tools :  in  the  first  case,  to  remove  obstacles  in  the 
road ;  in  the  second  case,  to  retard  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  by  destroying 
bridges,  breaking  up  the  road,  &c. 

§  25.  The  distance  of  the  rear  guard  from  the  main  body  depends  upon 
its  strength ;  generally,  in  a  retreat,  the  rear  guard  is  held  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  the  main  body  that  the  latter,  even  when  the  enemy  attacks  in 
force,  may  without  precipitation  or  impediment  select  its  own  time  and 
place  for  halting  or  encamping,  without  making  a  forced  march.  But  if 
the  rear  guard  is  weak,  and  the  enemy  pursues  vigorously,  the  main  body 
should  remain  near  by  to  support  it.  If  the  main  body  is  obliged  to  pass 
defiles,  or  if  its  movements  are  in  any  way  retarded,  it  must  be  at  such  a 
distance  from  the  rear  guard  as  to  give  it  time  to  move  oflf  a  sufficient 
distance,  in  spite  of  any  unexpected  delay. 

§  26.  If  the  main  advanced  and  rear  guards  move  at  the  distance  of 
some  miles  from  the  main  body,  each  column  of  the  latter  detaches,  in 
addition,  small  advanced  and  rear  parties,  (one  or  two  companies,  or  a 
platoon,)  which  march  at  the  distance  of  some  few  hundred  paces  from 
each  column,  and  perform  the  duties  of  advanced  and  rear  guards  in  time 
of  peace. 

§  27.  In  cases  where  the  nature  of  the  ground,  on  the  flanks  of  the 
roads,  is  such  as  to  render  the  march  of  the  columns  insecure,  small 
detachments  are  sent  out  as  flankers;  and  from  these  patrols  on  the 
extreme  flanks,  as  explained  in  §§  12,  13,  and  14. 

Article  3. 
Arrangements  during  a  flank  march. 

§  28.  In  a  march  to  the  flank,  if  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  enemy  to 
attack  the  flank  of  \hQ  columns  in  march,  all  the  parts  should  be  so 
arranged  that  they  may  promptly,  and  without  a  long  movement,  change 
from  the  order  of  march  to  that  of  battle,  either  by  wheeling  into  line,  or 
by  changing  the  direction  of  the  columns,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
able  to  resist  his  attack.  Therefore,  in  such  cases,  certain  troops  are 
designated  who  are  to  form  the  line  of  combatants  in  the  order  of  battle, 
others  to  form  the  reserve,  and  others  to  guard  the  trains,  on  the  road 
farthest  from  the  enemy. 

§  29.  During  flank  marches,  flank  detachments  are  sent  out  towards  the 
enemy  J  they  march  parallel  to  the  main  column,  watch  the  enemy,  and, 
if  necessary,  oppose  him  long  enough  to  enable  the  main  body  to  form  in 
order  of  battle. 

§  30.  The  duties  of  these  flank  detachments  correspond  to  those  of 


402  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

advanced  guards  in  offensive  marches,  and  rear  guards  in  retreat ;  because 
the  flank  detachments  protect  the  main  body  against  a  sudden  attack,  and 
enable  them  either  to  pass  from  one  line  of  operations  to  another,  or  to 
gain  a  position  on  the  flank  of  the  enemy,  or,  finally,  to  turn  him. 

It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  flank  marches  should  always  be 
undertaken  and  executed  with  many  precautions;  for,  when  making 
them,  it  is  easy  to  lose  our  own  communications  and  line  of  retreat,  if  we 
have  not  time  to  gain  the  new  line  of  operations.  Therefore,  that  there 
may  be  no  impediment  during  the  intended  flank  march,  every  thing 
possible  must  be  done  to  conceal  it  from  the  enemy,  by  taking  advantage 
of  the  ground,  and  by  the  movements  of  the  flank  guard,  which  should 
be  strong  enough  to  offer  an  obstinate  resistance,  and  keep  the  enemy 
away  from  the  main  body  until  the  completion  of  the  movement. 

§  31.  The  strength  of  the  flank  guard  must  be  in  proportion  to  the 
duties  it  has  to  perform ;  its  strength  must  be  determined  upon  the  same 
principles  as  that  of  advanced  and  rear  guards. 

§  32.  The  arrangements  for  the  march,  and  the  manner  of  operation  of 
a  flank  guard,  depend  entirely  upon  the  position  of  the  enemy,  the  nature 
of  the  country,  and  the  direction  of  the  roads.  To  secure  the  march, 
the  flank  guard  pushes  out  detachments  and  patrols  on  the  exposed  side, 
to  cover  the  whole  flank  of  the  columns  in  march.  The  flank  guard 
itself  either  marches  opposite  the  main  body,  or  remains  in  position,  to 
occupy  points  where  roads  coming  in  from  the  side  of  the  enemy  would 
enable  him  to  disturb  the  march  of  our  own  troops.  In  the  last  case, 
when  the  columns  of  the  main  body  have  passed  beyond  the  point  occupied 
by  the  flank  guard,  the  latter  either  occupies  another  point,  covering  the 
march,  by  gradually  sending  troops  there,  or  else  places  itself  as  a  rear 
guard  behind  the  marching  column,  while,  in  the  mean  time,  any  other, 
points  to  be  occupied  have  been  held  by  other  flank  guards  detached 
from  the  main  body. 

The  first  method  is  pursued  when  the  ground  permits  the  movement  of 
the  flank  guard  to  be  made  without  danger,  as,  for  instance,  along  the 
banks  of  a  stream  over  which  there  are  few  crossings ;  the  latter  in  all 
cases  where  the  march  of  the  fractions  of  the  flank  guard  would  be  ex- 
posed to  danger  from  the  attack  of  the  enemy. 

§  33.  The  distance  of  the  flank  guard  from  the  main  body  is  regulated 
as  in  the  case  of  an  advanced  guard  in  an  offensive  march. 

§  34.  Fig.  2  gives  an  example,  without  reference  to  the  ground,  of 
the  flank  march  of  a  division  of  cavalry,  under  the  protection  of  a  flank 
brigade  and  a  battery  of  horse  artillery. 

§  35.  In  addition  to  the  main  flank  guard  sent  out  in  the  direction  of 
the  enemy,  each  column  of  the  main  body  detaches  small  advanced,  flank, 
and  rear  guards. 


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OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME   OF    WAR.  405 

When  necessary,  a  special  guard  is  detailed  for  the  trains,  which,  in 
such  cases,  usually  move  in  one  body. 

Article  4. 
Arrangement  and  movement  of  the  trains. 

§  36.  To  avoid  confusion  and  delay  in  the  march  of  troops,  from  the 
great  number  of  wagons  with  them,  the  trains  are  divided  into  three 
classes. 

§  37.  Trains  of  the  first  class,  which  are  needed  during  the  march,  con- 
sist of  the  ambulances,  provided  with  the  means  of  dressing  wounds,  and 
accompanied  by  the  surgeon  of  the  day,  an  assistant  surgeon,  and  a  party 
of  hospital  attendants. 

In  the  artillery,  the  spare  carriages  accompany  the  train  of  the  1st 
class ;  in  the  mounted  engineer  troops,  the  ponton-wagons,  if  there  is  any 
necessity  for  them.  In  addition  to  these,  during  marches  near  the  enemy, 
the  ammunition-wagons  accompany  the  trains  of  the  1st  class,  that  the 
troops  may  never  be  in  want  of  cartridges. 

§  38.  Trains  of  the  1st  class  follow  immediately  after  their  regiments, 
batteries,  or  other  integral  parts. 

§  39.  Trains  of  the  2d  class,  which  are  needed  by  the  troops  only  when 
in  camp,  consist  of:  the  wagons  for  ammunition,  money,  papers  and 
records,  tools,  baggage,  medicines,  field-forges,  artillery-wagons,  staff 
baggage- wagons,  pack-animals  of  the  field  and  company  officers,  wagons 
of  the  office  of  the  commander-in-chief,  wagons  carrying  provisions  and 
forage  for  immediate  distribution,  and,  finally,  the  sutlers'  wagons.  Ammu- 
nition-wagons are  separated  from  the  others,  and  compose  in  each  column 
a  separate  section,  marching  near  the  troops:  i.e.  in  an  offensive  march, 
they  move  at  the  head  of  the  trains  of  the  2d  class,  and  in  retreat,  behind 
them.  The  other  wagons  of  the  2d  class  move  by  kinds,  and  in  the  order 
named  above. 

§  40.  Trains  of  the  2d  class  march  behind  the  troops,  in  the  interval 
between  the  main  body  and  the  rear  guard. 

If  there  is  no  probability  of  meeting  the  enemy,  or  if  the  advanced 
guard  is  at  a  great  distance  (e.g.  one-half  a  day's  march)  from  the  main 
body,  then  the  wagons  of  the  2d  class,  belonging  to  the  advanced  guard, 
may  march  immediately  after  it ;  in  like  manner,  if  the  general  column 
moves  by  echelon,  with  intervals  of  half  a  day's  march,  then  the  wagons 
of  the  2d  class,  belonging  to  each  echelon,  may  march  immediately  be- 
hind it. 

But  when  an  affair  with  the  enemy  is  anticipated,  all  the  trains  of  the 
2d  glass,  except  the  ammunition-wagons,  follow  the  main  body,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  not  less  than  one-half  a  day's  march ;  so  that  in  the  event  of  a 
retreat  the  wagons  may  not  delay  the  movement.     But  in  such  cases  the 


406  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

ammunition-wagons  follow  immediately  after  the  troops  to  whom  tliey 
belong.  In  a  general  retreat,  the  trains  of  the  2d  class  should  be  placed 
at  least  one-half  a  day's  march  in  front  of  the  troops,  i.e.  at  such  a  dis- 
tance that  in  no  event  can  they  impede  or  delay  the  movements  of  the 
active  troops. 

§  41.  Trains  of  the  third  class  consist  of  those  for  which  the  troops  have 
no  immediate  or  pressing  necessity.  They  are  composed  of  provision  and 
forage  wagons,  wagons  loaded  with  hospital  stores  and  equipments,  ambu- 
lances for  the  sick  who  are  in  the  general  hospital,  &c.,  &c. 

§  42.  Trains  of  the  3d  class  always  march  in  a  distinct  train,  separate 
from  the  troops,  on  the  principal  road,  and  under  the  protection  of  a 
special  escort;  the  strength  of  which  depends  upon  the  extent  of  the 
train  and  the  position  of  the  enemy. 

§  43.  The  number  of  wagons  allowed  in  the  2d  and  3d  classes  depends 
upon  circumstances,  and  special  orders  issued  during  the  campaign. 
Commanders  of  separate  detachments  may  be  allowed  to  vary  the  number 
of  wagons  in  each  class  according  to  circumstances. 

§  44.  In  the  march  of  a  large  number  of  wagons,  any  obstacle  to  a 
section,  or  a  single  wagon,  delays  all  that  follow,  and  thus  extends  to  the 
whole  train.  To  avoid  this  difficulty,  large  trains  are  divided  into  sections 
of  about  100  wagons  each,  which  march  about  one-third  of  a  mile  apart. 

§  45.  If,  in  addition  to  the  ammunition-wagons,  there  are  some  loaded 
with  loose  powder,  they  are  formed  in  separate  sections  and  placed  in  the 
part  of  the  train  least  exposed  to  the  enemy.  No  foreign  matter  is  to  be 
placed  on  these  wagons. 

§  46.  The  head  of  each  section  must  occasionally  halt  for  a  moment, 
that  the  rear  may  keep  closed  up. 

§  47.  Detailed  arrangements  for  the  formation  and  march  of  trains 
should  be  made. 

Article  5. 
The  defence  of  trains. 

§  48.  The  duties  of  troops  detailed  as  the  escort  of  a  train  are :  1st. 
To  enforce  the  preservation  of  order.  2d.  To  assist  their  rapid  and  unin- 
terrupted march.     3d.  To  defend  them  if  attacked. 

§  49.  A  portion  of  the  escort,  detailed  to  watch  over  the  order  of 
march,  distributes  itself  as  a  chain  along  the  whole  length  of  the  train. 
If  the  escort  is  small,  a  certain  number  of  privates,  under  the  charge  of 
a  non-commissioned  officer,  are  placed  in  charge  of  a  section,  or  certain 
number  of  wagons,  and  are  responsible  for  their  order  of  march. 

§  50.  When  the  roads  are  very  bad,  some  of  the  escort  are  dismouated, 
in  order  to  be  in  readiness  to  assist  any  wagons  that  may  mire,  break  down, 
or  meet  with  any  impediment. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN   TIME   OF    WAR.  407 

§  51.  A  working-party  marches  at  the  head  of  the  escort  to  repair  the 
road.  The  strength  of  this  party  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  wagons, 
the  state  of  the  road,  &c. 

§  52,  The  strength  and  composition  of  the  escort  of  a  train  must  de- 
pend upon  the  probability  of  attack,  the  extent  of  the  train,  and,  finally, 
on  the  nature  of  the  country  through  which  the  train  is  to  pass. 

§  53.  If  the  escort  is  of  infantry,  a  small  party  of  cavalry  must  be 
added  to  look  out  for  the  enemy,  patrol,  &c. 

§  54.  In  all  cases,  the  commander  of  the  escort  has  absolute  control 
over  all  persons  on  duty  with  or  accompanying  the  train. 

§  55.  The  commander  of  the  escort  should  possess  accurate  informa- 
tion concerning  the  country  through  which  the  train  is  to  pass,  that  he 
may  make  the  proper  arrangements  for  its  security. 

§  56.  A  part  of  the  escort  always  marches  as  an  advanced  guard,  and 
another  portion  as  a  rear  guard.  The  main  body  is  concentrated  at  points 
determined  by  the  danger;  if  necessary,  it  detaches  flank  guards,  which 
send  out  patrols.  In  an  open  country,  and  when  there  is  no  reason  to 
expect  the  enemy  at  any  particular  point,  the  main  body  of  the  escort 
marches  alongside  of  the  centre  of  the  train.  Under  other  circumstances, 
they  are  concentrated  at  the  head  or  in  rear  of  the  train,  according  to 
the  direction  in  which  the  enemy  is  expected. 

§  57.  The  advanced  guard  is  thrown  forward  a  sufl&cient  distance  to 
remove  all  obstacles  that  would  delay  the  train.  By  means  of  its  patrols 
it  examines  the  woods,  villages,  and  defiles ;  keeps  up  its  communication 
with  the  main  body,  and  reports  to  the  commander  of  the  escort  every 
thing  observed. 

§  58.  The  advanced  guard  selects  suitable  positions  for  halting-places, 
camps,  and  for  parking  the  train. 

§  59.  The  advanced  guard  occupies  all  defiles  and  positions  which 
would  enable  the  enemy  to  attack  with  advantage ;  it  does  not  abandon 
them  before  the  arrival  of  the  main  body  of  the  escort,  which  last  holds 
them  until  the  train  arrives.  If  necessary,  the  escort  is  relieved  by  a 
small  flank  detachment,  or  may  itself  remain  in  position  until  the  whole 
train  has  passed  by  and  is  out  of  danger. 

§  60.  If  the  enemy  is  expected  from  the  rear,  the  suitable  measures 
are  taken ;  the  rear  guard  destroying  the  bridges,  dikes,  &c.,  behind  it, 
and  throwing  all  possible  obstacles  in  the  path  of  the  enemy.  The  rear 
guard  should  constantly  keep  up  its  communication  with  the  main  body 
by  means  of  patrols. 

§  61.  If  the  enemy  threatens  the  flanks,  and  the  ground  is  too  much 
broken  for  the  action  of  cavalry,  the  defence  of  the  train  becomes  diffi- 
cult for  that  arm.  In  such  cases,  small  parties  of  cavalry  are  with  the 
advanced  and  rear  guards;  but  the  main  escort  is  composed  of  infantry, 


408  REGULATIONS    FOR   FIELD    SERVICE 

who  occupy  positions  favorable  for  protecting  the  train  before  its  head 
arrives  opposite  to  them,  and  do  not  abandon  those  positions  until  the 
rear  of  the  train  has  passed  by. 

§  62.  Fig.  3  gives  an  example  of  the  march  of  a  train  escorted  by 
10  companies  of  cavalry,  2  pieces  of  horse  artillery,  and  2  regiments  of 
infantry. 

Article  6. 

Of  short  halts  during  the  inarch j  halts  for  the  night,  and  halts  for  an 

entire  day. 

§  63.  The  length  of  a  march  near  the  enemy  depends  upon  circum- 
stances, and  cannot  be  determined  absolutely. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  length  of  march  may  be  about  17 
miles ;  but  in  case  of  necessity  it  may  be  extended  to  30  miles.  Small 
detachments  move  with  much  greater  rapidity  than  entire  corps,  or 
armies.  As  a  general  rule,  troops  should  not  be  exhausted  by  forced 
marches. 

Small  detachments  of  cavalry  may  make  marches  of  40,  50,  or  even  70 
miles ;  but  this  refers  only  to  exceptional  cases,  when  the  success  of  the 
enterprise  in  hand  depends  upon  the  suddenness  of  their  appearance. 

The  ordinary  rate  of  march  should  be  about  3  miles  per  hour.  When 
the  roads  are  good,  it  is  advisable  to  move  at  a  moderate  trot,  walking  for 
some  distance  before  each  halt,  and  before  reaching  camp ;  for  it  is  proper 
to  give  the  horses  as  much  time  as  possible  to  feed  and  rest  in  camp. 

Generals  and  other  officers,  furnished  with  an  escort  of  cavalry,  should 
regulate  the  rate  of  their  march  in  accordance  with  what  is  laid  down 
above,  and  are  not  permitted,  except  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity,  to 
urge  the  escort  to  an  immoderate  speed  for  the  sake  of  their  own  con- 
venience. 

§  64.  Short  halts  are  made  from  time  to  time,  as  prescribed  for  marches 
in  time  of  peace;  that  is,  a  halt  for  10  or  15  minutes  every  hour,  and  in 
long  marches,  one  or  two  long  halts  of  about  an  hour  each. 

§  65.  When  near  the  enemy,  it  is  necessary  to  arrange  the  distances 
between  the  camps,  or  bivouacs,  so  that  the  columns  of  the  main  body 
can  easily  be  assembled  at  the  general  point  of  rendezvous;  then  the 
reserves  are  to  be  placed  near  the  roads  by  which  the  enemy  is  expected, 
in  positions  convenient  to  wood  and  water. 

§  66.  The  various  parts  of  the  army  are  so  arranged  that,  if  the  enemy 
attacks,  they  can  readily  move  out  upon  the  roads,  or  quickly  form  in 
order  of  battle  in  a  position  chosen  beforehand,  either  in  front  or  in  the 
rear  of  encampment  or  bivouac. 

§  67.  The  main  body  should  always  be  secure  from  a  sudden  attack: 
therefore,  (notwithstanding  there  is  an  advanced  guard  in  front  and  a 


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OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  411 

rear  guard  behind,)  patrols  are  sent  out  from  it,  and  a  party  is  detailed, 
which  does  not  unsaddle,  and  always  remains  ready  for  action ;  some- 
times, to  prevent  being  turned,  separate  posts  are  sent  out  on  the  flanks, 
and  sometimes  the  troops  are  protected  in  their  camp  by  advanced  posts, 
arranged  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  Part  II. 

§  68.  The  advanced  and  rear  guards  take  measures  not  only  for  their 
own  safety,  but  also  for  that  of  the  main  body,  placing  themselves  for  this 
purpose  in  positions  suitable  for  action,  and  watching  all  the  roads  lead- 
ing from  the  enemy. 

§  69.  When  it  is  perfectly  certain  that  none  of  the  enemy  are  in  the 
vicinity,  each  column  may  pass  the  night  by  itself,  on  the  road  by  which 
it  marches. 

§  70.  In  flank  marches  of  several  days'  duration,  the  camps  for  the 
night  should  be  placed  in  such  positions  that  the  main  body  may  be  secure 
from  attack,  and  in  case  of  the  appearance  of  the  enemy  in  superior  force 
be  able  to  retreat,  i.e.  either  to  preserve  the  old  road  of  march  and  com- 
munication, or  in  some  manner  to  gain  a  new  one.  The  arrangements 
for  halts  and  camps  for  the  night  are  the  same  as  in  ofi"ensive  marches. 

§  71.  In  regard  to  the  short  halts  of  trains  the  following  rules  are  pre- 
scribed :  As  in  the  case  of  cavalry,  the  head  of  the  train  occasionally 
makes  short  halts  to  enable  the  rear  to  close  up,  and  if  the  train  is  divided 
into  several  sections,  the  head  of  each  section  does  the  same  thing. 

During  these  halts  the  wagons  remain  in  the  road,  not  turning  to  one 
side,  or  changing  the  arrangement  of  the  wagons  and  escort  from  what  it 
was  during  the  march. 

§  72.  Long  halts,  during  which  the  animals  are  fed,  are  made  only 
when  the  march  is  very  long,  or  the  roads  very  bad,  and  the  animals 
fatigued.  When  the  object  is  not  to  overtake  the  troops  when  at  a  halt, 
it  is  better  to  leave  the  train  longer  in  camp,  and  then  make  the  whole 
march  without  a  halt ;  in  this  manner  the  animals  are  not  kept  so  long  in 
harness,  and  can  therefore  rest  and  feed  better. 

§  73.  During  long  halts,  and  camps  for  the  night,  the  train  is  placed 
more  compactly  than  usual;  for  which  purpose  a  proper  place  is  selected 
for  placing  all  the  wagons  together,  in  order  that,  being  less  scattered,  a 
better  watch  may  be  kept  upon  them,  and  better  order  be  preserved. 
When  danger  is  apprehended  from  the  enemy,  it  is  best  to  park  the  train 
in  column,  because  this  formation  is  changed  more  quickly  than  any  other, 
and  from  it  it  is  easier  to  take  the  road  at  the  end  of  the  halt,  or  when 
leaving  camp. 

Remark. — In  this  formation  the  average  interval  of  8  yards  in  width 
is  allowed  each  wagon.  The  harness  is  either  piled  up  behind  the  wagon, 
or  hung  on  the  wheels,  and  the  animals  are  attached  to  the  pole.     The 


412  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

distance  between  each  row  of  wagons  in  the  column  may  be  fixed  at 
about  20  paces. 

Light  wagons  of  the  2d  class,  although  they  move  in  separate  trains, 
are  not  brought  together  in  camp,  but  bivouac  in  rear  of  the  corps  to 
which  they  belong.  If  there  are  wagons  loaded  with  powder,  cartridges, 
or  other  combustibles,  precautions  must  be  taken  to  guard  them  from  fire, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  best  to  park  them  in  a  separate  place,  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  train.  The  escort  bivouacs  at  the  head,  or  on  the  flanks,  of 
the  train,  as  may  be  most  convenient ;  guards  and  sentinels  are  posted  to 
preserve  order ;  if  the  teamsters  are  not  to  be  trusted,  and  desertions  are 
apprehended,  the  whole  train  is  surrounded  by  a  chain  of  sentinels. 

§  74.  When  an  attack  is  expected,  the  train  should  be  corralled,  or  else 
parked  in  a  square  with  the  hind-wheels  outside,  and  the  animals  in  the 
centre. 

In  this  case,  the  escort  places  itself  in  a  suitable  position,  keeping  in 
view  the  defence  of  the  position  occupied  by  the  park,  and  takes  all  the 
military  measures  of  precaution  necessary  to  secure  itself  and  the  train 
against  a  sudden  attack. 


CHAPTER  II. 


DUTIES  OF  THE  COMMANDERS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  THE 
TROOPS  DURING  MILITARY  MARCHES. 

Article  1. 

Duties  of  the  commander-in-chief. 

§  75.  The  commander-in-chief  must  cause  the  roads  by  which  he  in- 
tends to  march,  as  well  as  the  country  on  each  side,  to  be  examined  by 
ofl&cers  of  the  general  staff",  or  by  patrols ;  but  if,  from  the  proximity  of 
the  enemy,  or  other  causes,  this  is  impossible,  it  is  necessary,  at  least,  to 
obtain  information  concerning  their  nature  and  practicability  by  inquiries 
of  the  inhabitants,  &c. 

§  76.  He  must  take  steps  to  procure  a  sufficient  number  of  reliable 
guides,  so  that  each  separate  detachment  may  have  its  own ;  this  is  espe- 
cially important  in  thinly-inhabited  districts,  and  in  movements  by  cross- 
roads. 

§  77.  In  relation  to  seeking  and  employing  guides,  the  following  rules 
are  laid  down :  1.  To  be  watchful,  lest  the  guides,  for  their  own  purposes, 
prejudice  us  in  any  manner;  2.  To  select  guides  from  among  hunters, 
woodsmen,  stage  or  wagon  drivers,  and  herdsmen,  as  well  as  peddlers  and 
travelling  beggars,  because  the  country  is  well  known  to  these  classes 


OF   CAVALRY    IN   TIME    OF   WAR.  418 

of  people;  3.  To  change  the  guides  as  seldom  as  possible,  especially  in 
localities  where  parties  of  the  enemy  may  be  met  with ;  4.  To  treat  the 
guides  kindly  and  mildly,  and  to  reward  them  well ;  but  to  watch  them 
closely  and  prevent  them  from  passing  over  to  the  enemy^  and  to  send 
them  back  by  the  road  over  which  they  came. 

§  78.  He  regulates  the  distribution  of  the  troops,  the  order  of  march, 
and  the  precautionary  measures;  he  arranges  the  disposition  of  the  troops 
for  the  movement,  by  means  of  the  maps  of  the  country,  and  the  inform- 
ation obtained  concerning  it  and  the  enemy. 

§  79.  The  orders  should  be  brief,  clear,  and  positive.  All  minute 
details,  which  might,  in  unforeseen  cases,  trammel  the  subordinate  com- 
manders in  the  execution  of  their  orders,  should  be  avoided. 

§  80.  The  orders  for  the  march  should  specify : 

1.  The  number  of  columns;  under  whose  command  each  column  is  to 
be ;  precisely  where,  and  by  what  roads,  the  march  is  to  be  made. 

2.  The  strength  of  each  column,  echelon,  advanced,  rear,  and  flank 
guard. 

3.  At  what  hour  each  column  or  party  is  to  move. 

4.  Where  and  when  the  train  is  to  assemble  and  move,  and  under  the 
escort  of  what  detachment.  The  road  by  which  the  train  is  to  move 
should  be  carefully  considered,  in  order  that  in  the  event  of  a  sudden 
retreat  the  troops  may  find  the  most  important  roads  clear. 

5.  The  principal  measures  of  precaution  to  be  observed. 

6.  Where  the  commander-in-chief  will  be  found  during  the  march,  so 
that  the  subordinate  commanders  may  know  whither  to  send  their  reports. 

7.  Finally,  every  thing  rendered  necessary  by  the  circumstances  is 
mentioned  in  the  orders,  and  sometimes  the  general  arrangements  in  case 
of  meeting  the  enemy. 

§  81.  In  the  distribution  of  the  troops  into  several  columns,  for  the 
march,  the  commander-in-chief  will  observe  the  following  rules : — 

1.  The  number  of  columns  must  depend  upon  the  whole  number  of 
troops,  and  upon  the  number,  nature,  and  degree  of  separation  of  the 
roads.  ♦ 

2.  The  movement  of  a  large  body  of  troops,  as,  for  instance,  an  army 
corps,  by  one  road,  besides  the  difl&culty  of  supplying  them,  renders  the 
march  difl&cult  and  slow ;  and,  in  addition,  a  long  column  requires  much 
time  to  take  up  its  order  of  battle.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  number 
of  columns  is  very  great,  it  may  be  difficult  to  keep  up  the  proper  con- 
nection ;  besides,  when  there  are  many  roads  near  and  parallel  to  each 
other,  they  are  seldom  of  a  nature  favorable  to  the  movements  of  large 
bodies  of  troops. 

3.  The  intervals  between  the  columns  should  always  be  such  that  they 
can  give  reciprocal  support  upon  the  appearance  of  the  enemy,  and  not 

25 


414  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

be  in  danger  of  being  turned  or  separated.  This  interval  will  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  country :  the  more  broken  it  is,  the  nearer  should 
the  columns  be  to  each  other,  for  in  this  case  more  time  is  required  to 
concentrate  ^he  troops,  the  transmission  of  orders  and  information  is 
slower,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  watch  the  enemy.  In  addition  to  these 
considerations,  the  intervals  between  the  columns  should  be  regulated 
by  the  proximity  of  the  enemy ;  the  nearer  he  is,  the  less  should  these 
intervals  be. 

4.  The  principal  masses  of  the  troops  move  upon  the  roads  on  which 
it  is  expected  to  meet  the  main  body  of  the  enemy,  or  by  which  the 
principal  attack  is  to  be  made  upon  him. 

5.  Each  kind  of  troops  is  moved  towards  the  locality  best  suited  for 
its  operations. 

6.  If  one  flank  is  particularly  threatened  by  the  enemy,  the  columns 
on  that  side  are  reinforced,  and  the  reserves  drawn  near  them. 

§  82.  To  secure  harmony  of  movement  and  the  facility  of  mutual  sup- 
port, the  commander-in-chief  should — 

1.  Watch  that  the  main  columns  are  all  equally  advanced :  therefore, 
he  equalizes  the  rate  of  march  on  different  roads,  slackens  the  gait  of 
certain  columns,  or  increases  the  number  and  duration  of  the  halts ;  regu- 
lating these  things  not  only  upon  the  length  of  march  of  each  column, 
but  upon  all  the  circumstances  that  may  influence  the  velocity  of  the 
movement,  such  as  the  nature  of  the  road,  the  number  of  troops  in  the 
several  columns,  and  the  obstacles  that  may  be  encountered. 

2.  Take  care  that  the  columns  do  not  cross  each  other. 

3.  Maintain  a  constant  communication  between  the  columns  by  means 
of  patrols,  which  at  the  same  time  examine  the  intermediate  country. 

4.  Take  all  precautions  to  enable  the  columns  to  iinite  at  any  moment: 
he  therefore  avoids  separating  the  troops  by  insurmountable  obstacles. 

§  83.  That  he  may,  under  all  circumstances,  have  it  in  his  power  to . 
place  the  troops  in  position,  the  commander-in-chief  should  know  not 
only  where  the  troops  ought  to  be  at  any  given  time,  but  also  where  they 
actually  are.  For  this  purpose,  he  requires  every^ommander  of  an  ad- 
vanced guard,  or  chief  of  a  separate  column,  to  report  not  only  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  enemy,  as  well  as  particular  events  and  delays,  but  also 
his  distance  from  known  points  on  the  road,  and  his  arrival  at  halting- 
places  and  camps.  These  reports  should  be  made  the  more  frequently  in 
proportion  to  the  proximity  of  the  enemy. 

§  84.  To  watch  over  the  order  of  march,  the  commanders  of  the  main 
and  detached  columns  should  occasionally  halt  and  allow  their  commands 
to  pass  by  them,  so  as  to  see  that  the  column  i§  not  too  much  lengthened 
out,  particularly  in  the  march  of  large  bodies  on  one  road. 

§  85.  The  commander-in-chief  and    the  subordinate  commanders  see 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF  WAR.  415 

that  all  persons  belonging  to  the  combatants,  and  for  duty,  march  in  the 
proper  places.  The  non-combatants,  dismounted  men,  led  horses  of  the 
officers  and  men,  march  with  the  trains  of  the  second  class. 

§  86.  In  parties  near  the  enemy,  i.e.  advanced  guards,  front  and  flank 
detachments,  rear  guards  in  retreat,  patrols,  &c.,  the  firearms  shourld  be 
loaded.  In  the  main  body,  the  arms  are  loaded  only  when  an  affair  is 
anticipated. 

§  87.  AVhen  passing  through  towns  or  villages,  by  farms,  inns,  wells, 
and  such  places,  the  commander-in-chief  and  the  subordinate  commanders 
turn  their  attention  to  preventing  disorder,  by  closely  watching  that  no 
one  leaves  the  ranks. 

§  88.  In  passing  defiles  and  crossing  rivers  the  commander-in-chief 
watches — 

1.  That  the  troops  do  not  crowd  together  at  the  entrance,  or  stretch 
out  in  passing  through,  but  that  they  preserve  their  proper  distances. 

2.  That,  in  crossing  rivers  in  boats  or  ferries,  each  party  knows  when 
and  after  what  other  party  it  is  to  cross. 

3.  That,  as  soon  as  any  troops  have  crossed,  they  form  in  conformity 
with  the  orders  they  have  received. 

4.  That  the  drivers  of  the  artillery  and  train  do  not  dismount  without 
orders. 

5.  That,  in  crossing  fords,  the  men  follow  each  other  at  the  prescribed 
distance ;  that  the  wagons  do  not  drive  in  one  after  another,  but  that  each 
waits  until  the  one  in  front  has  gained  a  certain  distance,  or  even  reached 
the  opposite  shore.  In  case  of  necessity,  some  officers  are  left  to  super- 
intend the  crossing.  At  difficult  crossings  a  detachment  may  be  left  to 
assist  the  artillery  and  train. 

§  89.  During  secret  or  night  marches,  trumpet  signals  are  not  used ; 
orders  are  given  in  a  low  tone  of  voice.  In  secret  night  marches,  smoking 
and  striking  fire  are  forbidden. 

§  90.  The  commander-in-chief  watches  that,  during  halts,  as  well  as  on 
the  march,  the  troops  are  protected  by  advanced  and  rear  guards,  flank 
detachments,  and  patrols ;  also,  when  in  camp,  as  explained  hereafter  in 
Part  II. 

§  91.  Upon  approaching  the  place  where  the  troops  are  to  halt,  bivouac, 
or  encamp,  the  commander-in-chief  sends  forward  betimes  officers  of  the 
staff",  with  non-commissioned  officers  from  every  party,  to  mark  the  place 
to  be  occupied  by  each. 

§  92.  Since  the  advanced  and  rear  guards  are  more  fatigued  than  the 
other  troops,  on  account  of  their  continual  state  of  vigilance  and  prepara- 
tion, the  commander-in-chief  should  relieve  them  by  fresh  troops  from 
time  to  time. 


416  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

Article  2. 
Duties  of  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard. 

§  93.  Upon  commencing  the  march,  he  sends  out  front  and  flank  de- 
tachments, as  explained  in  §§  12,  13,  and  14. 

§  94.  He  places  an  officer,  or  non-commissioned  officer,  in  charge  of 
every  party  detached,  and  explains  to  them  what  patrols  they  are  to  send 
out,  and  exactly  in  what  direction,  and  gives  them  special  instructions  as 
to  what  they  are  to  do  in  different  cases. 

§  95.  During  the  march  he  watches  that  the  detachments  and  patrols 
maintain  their  communication  with  each  other  and  himself,  and  that  they 
perform  their  duties  strictly.  Not  blindly  trusting  to  the  advanced  and 
flank  detachments  for  security,  he  should  see  that  his  command  marches 
in  the  best  order,  and  in  the  habitual  formation,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ground. 

§  96.  When  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  he  should  never  lose  sight  of 
him,  follow  all  his  movements  promptly  and  continually,  and  ascertain  his 
strength,  direction,  and  designs,  as  well  as  possible. 

§  97.  He  should  exert  himself  to  obtain  reliable  and  detailed  informa- 
tion concerning  the  enemy  and  the  country  in  advance,  by  means  of 
patrols,  spies,  inquiries  from  prisoners  and  the  inhabitants. 

§  98.  He  interrogates  deserters  and  prisoners  as  to — 

1.  The  names  and  strength  of  their  regiments,  and  the  detachment  to 
which  they  belong. 

2.  What  brigade,  division,  and  army  corps  they  belonged  to;  the  names 
of  their  commanders. 

3.  Where  their  corps  are  quartered. 

4.  What  are  the  dispositions  of  their  regiments,  brigades,  and  divisions. 
If  the  corps  is  in  position,  the  strength  of  its  advanced  posts,  and  whether 
it  is  carefully  guarded. 

5.  What  corps  or  divisions  are  near  their  own ;  where  they  are,  and  at 
what  intervals. 

6.  When  and  where  they  left  their  regiments ;  whether  detachments 
were  sent  out  from  the  corps,  in  what  force,  and  whether  they  expected 
support. 

7.  Whether  there  were  any  orders  or  rumors  in  regard  to  intended 
movements,  and  exactly  what  they  were. 

8.  Whether  provisions  and  supplies  were  abundant,  and  the  situation 
of  the  magazines. 

9.  Whether  there  was  much  sickness,  or  any  epidemics,  and  the  situa- 
tions of  the  main  and  temporary  hospitals. 

In  few  words,  endeavor  to  obtain  information  about  every  thing  which 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  417 

• 
relates  to  the  arrangements  of  the   enemy,  his   strength,  designs,  and 
means  of  all  kinds. 

§  99.  It  is  impossible  to  place  much  reliance  upon  the  testimony  of 
prisoners  and  deserters :  on  the  one  hand,  they  may  be  too  ignorant  to 
give  a  definite  answer ;  on  the  other,  they  may,  from  fear,  reply  accord- 
ing to  the  wishes  of  the  questioner,  or  they  may  deliberately  falsify.  It 
is  therefore  necessary  frequently  to  repeat  the  same  questions  unexpectedly, 
so  as  to  compare  the  different  answers,  and  also  to  compare  the  statements 
of  different  individuals. 

§  100.  The  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  will,  without,  delay, 
report  to  the  commander-in-chief  every  thing  observed  with  regard  to  the 
enemy,  every  considerable  detention,  his  arrival  at  remarkable  points  on 
the  road,  (such  as  towns,  rivers,  &c.,)  and  his  arrival  at  halting-places 
and  camps. 

§  101.  Upon  occupying  any  town,  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard 
should  take  every  means  to  obtain  information  as  to  military  movements ; 
for  this  purpose,  he  should  at  once  seize  the  archives  and  papers  of  the 
authorities  of  the  place,  and  also  the  letters  and  papers  in  the  post-office. 

§  102.  Upon  receiving  from  the  advanced  parties  or  patrols  any  intel- 
ligence, especially  if  it  concerns  the  movements  of  the  enemy,  he  should 
endeavor  to  verify  it  in  person,  or  by  means  of  reliable  officers,  and  then 
make  his  own  report  positively  and  distinctly,  so  that  no  unfounded  or 
exaggerated  report  may  unnecessarily  alarm  the  main  body  and  arrest  its 
march.  The  nearer  he  is  to  the  enemy,  the  more  frequently  should  he 
send  reports  to  the  commander-in-chief. 

§  103.  These  reports  are  made  either  verbally  through  aides,  or  in 
pencil.  The  time  and  place  whence  the  report  is  sent  should  be  noted  on 
the  paper.  The  greatest  attention  should  always  be  paid  to  giving  the 
correct  names  of  towns,  villages,  streams,  &c. 

§  104.  Reports  should  be  written  with  the  greatest  care  and  attention, 
for  upon  the  comparison  of  reports  the  movements  of  the  main  body  must 
depend.  The  most  important  qualities  of  the  reports  are  clearness,  per- 
spicuity, precision,  and  reliability.  They  should  contain  only  what  the 
sender  has  seen  himself,  or  properly  inquired  into.  Every  thing  which  he 
could  not  examine  himself  ought  to  be  stated  separately,  with  the  degree 
of  confidence  to  be  reposed  in  the  source  whence  it  was  derived. 

§  105.  When  sending  a  verbal  report,  the  commander  of  the  advanced 
guard  must  satisfy  himself  not  only  that  the  bearer  can  repeat  it 'word  for 
word,  but  that  he  comprehends  its  precise  meaning.  If  possible,  it  is 
best  to  send  with  all  such  despatches  some  of  those  who  were  ocular 
witnesses  of  the  subject  of  the  report.  If  the  report  is  important,  and 
there  is  danger  of  the  bearer  being  captured,  it  is  best  to  send  a  duplicate 
after  the  lapse  of  a  short  interval.     It  is  useful  to  number  all  reports,  for 


418  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

• 
should  one  be  captured  or  arrive  before  another  sent  previously,  the 
series  of  numbers  enables  this  to  be  detected.  These  remarks  apply  not 
only  to  the  reports  sent  by  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard,  but,  in 
general,  to  all  reports  sent  in  time  of  war.  The  adoption  cf  a  simple 
cipher  will  often  be  of  advantage. 

§  106.  The  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  attends  to  the  repairs 
of  the  road,  bridges,  causeways,  &c.  If  the  repairs  are  heavy,  and  exceed 
the  means  at  his  disposal,  he  promptly  informs  the  commander-in-chief. 

§  107.  When  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  is  infdVmed  of 
the  appearance  of  the  enemy,  he  at  once  takes  the  measures  rendered 
proper  by  the  object  of  the  march  and  the  orders  he  has  received :  i.e. 

1.  He  takes  up  a  position  in  order  to  keep  the  enemy  in  check  until 
the  arrival  of  the  main  body ;  or, 

2.  Marches  to  meet  and  attack  the  enemy ;  or,  finally, 

3.  Falls  back  upon  the  main  body,  endeavoring  to  delay  the  enemy  as 
long  as  possible,  so  as  to  give  the  main  body  time  to  fonn  and  change 
from  the  order  of  march  to  that  of  battle. 

§  108.  For  camps,  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  selects  places 
advantageous  for  defence  and  secure  against  sudden  attack.  Entire 
detachments  should  not  be  placed  in  woods,  defiles,  towns,  or  .villages,  but 
they  should  be  occupied  only  by  a  part  of  the  command,  the  rest  remain- 
ing near  by.  If  there  are  defiles  in  advance,  through  which  it  is  intended 
to  march,  their  debouches  should  be  occupied  in  force,  in  order  to  secure 
them  for  our  ulterior  movements. 

§  109.  The  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  secures  his  camp  by 
outposts. 

Remark. — All  the  duties  prescribed  for  the  commander  of  the  advanced 
guard  in  offensive  marches  apply  equally  to  the  commander  of  the  flank 
guard  during  a  march  to  the  flank. 

§  110.  In  a  retreat,  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  follows  the 
same  rules  as  in  the  offensive,  and,takes  great  pains  to  remove  all  obstacles 
that  might  impede  the  march  of  the  train  and  the  main  body.  To  repair 
the  road,  he  detaches  mounted  engineer  troops  or  working-parties,  with 
the  requisite  tools,  and  pursues  his  march  with  the  remainder  of  his  com- 
mand. 

Article  3. 

Duties  of  the  commander  of  the  rear  guard. 

§  111.  His  principal  duties,  during  a  pursuit  by  the  enemy,  consist — 

1.  In  indefatigable  vigilance. 

2.  In  the  preservation  of  the  best  order  and  most  severe  discipline. 

3.  In  sustaining  the  courage  and  spirits  of  his  troops. 

§  112.  He  should  use  every  exertion  to  ascertain  the  movements  and 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF    WAR.        ■  419 

designs  of  the  enemy,  that  he  may  be  able  to  take  in  time  the  measures 
necessary  to  thwart  and  oppose  him. 

§  113.  He  secures  and  guards  his  march  as  the  advanced  guard  does 
on  the  offensive.  By  a  turning  movement,  the  enemy  may  force  the  rear 
guard  to  accelerate  its  march,  and  thus  throw  it  into  disorder ;  for  this 
reason,  the  commander  should  pay  especial  attention  to  his  flanks  and  to 
the  cross-roads,  by  which  the  enemy  might  turn  and  attack  him ;  if  neces- 
sary, he  may  send  out,  instead  of  the  usual  small  detachments,  large  and 
independent  parties  which  can  resist  the  attack. 

§  114.  The  rear  guard  should  always  be  in  a  condition  to  form  in  order 
of  battle;  therefore,  those  portions  near  the  enemy  retreat  by  the  rear 
rank,  so  that  they  have  only  to  face  about. 

§  115.  That  he  may  be  able  to  preserve  order  in  the  rear  guard  when 
retreating  in  sight  of  the  enemy, •especially  during  the  rigor  of  his  pur- 
suit, the  commander  ought  not  to  conduct  the  retreat  with  all  the  troops 
at  once,  but  with  one  portion  fighting  to  protect  the  other,  which  latter 
in  the  mean  time  retreats,  occupies  an  advantageous  position  in  rear,  and 
then  receives  the  shock  of  the  enemy  in  turn,  thus  allowing  the  first  por- 
tion to  pass  by  to  the  rear. 

§  116.  The  portion  of  the  rear  guard  covering  such  a  retreat  ought 
to  avoid  engaging  in  a  decisive  combat,  and  merely  check  the  enemy  long 
enough  to  enable  the  portion  in  retreat  to  gain  its  newly-chosen  position. 

§  117i  The  commander  of  a  rear  guard,  in  a  retreat,  should  resort  to 
all  means  of  retarding  4he  pursuit  of  th'e  enemy ;  for  this  purpose,  he 
orders  the  roads  to  be  broken  up,  bridges  to  be  destroyed,  defiles  to  be 
blocked  up,  &c. 

§  118.  During  an  offensive  march,  if  there  is  no  danger  of  an  attack 
upon  the  rear  of  the  column,  the  duties  of  the  commander  of  the  rear 
guard  are  as  in  peace :  he  superintends  the  preservation  of  order  in  the 
train,  and  picks  up  stragglers,  &c. 

§  119.  In  all  cases,  the  commanders  of  rear  guards  ought  to  report  to 
the  commander  of  the  main  body  every  thing  that  occurs  to  their  party. 

Article  4. 
Duties  of  the  commanders  of  advanced,  Jlank,  and  rear  detachments. 

§  120.  They  send  out  patrols,  as  laid  down  in  §  14,  to  examine  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  ground  on  all  sides,  and  to  obtain  information 
of  the  enemy;  the  number  of  the  patrols  must  depend  upon  circum- 
stances and  the  nature  of  the  country. 

In  open  country  they  &re  small,  and  at  great  intervals  apart.  In  a 
rough,  broken  country,  in  foggy  or  very  rainy  weather,  in  night  marches, 
the  number  of  patrols  is  increased,  and  they  remain  near  their  detach- 


420  REGULATIONS    FOR   FIELD    SERVICE 

ments.  Patrols  are  not  sent  out  in  very  dark  nights,  unless  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

§  121.  The  commanders  of  detachments  upon  sending  out  patrols 
should  instruct  them  in  what  direction  to  march,  what  intervals  to  pre- 
serve, and  to  what  objects  and  places  their  attention  should  chiefly  be 
directed. 

§  122.  If  there  are  defiles,  woods,  villages,  &c.,  in  front,  the  advanced 
and  flank  detachments  should  examine  thei*  by  patrols  before  entering 
them,  lest  they  should  be  suddenly  attacked  and  cut  off". 

§  123.  On  approaching  a  village,  the  commander  of  a  detachment 
orders  his  patrols  to  seize,  in  some  way  or  other,  some  of  the  inhabitants 
for  interrogation,  as  to  whether  the  enemy  is  concealed  in  the  village,  or 
its  vicinity;  whether  he  has  passed  through  it;  if  he  has  passed,  in  what 
force,  with  what  kind  of  troops,  wherf,  and  in  what  direction.  The  in- 
habitants seized  should  not  be  dismissed  until  the  whole  detachment  has 
left  the  village. 

§  124.  Commanders  of  advanced,  flank,  and  rear  detachments,  upon 
receiving  reports  from  their  patrols,  should  endeavor  to  verify  them  in 
person,  particularly  in  important  cases,  and  ought  not  to  make  their  own 
reports  until  fully  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  those  of  the  patrols. 

§  125.  Commanders  of  detachments  should  endeavor  to  maintain  a  con- 
stant communication  with  the  parties  on  their  flanks  by  means  of  patrols. 
Flank  detachihents  should  not  be  long  separated  from  their  corps  by  im- 
passable places,  such  as  woods,  marshes,  lakes,  &(C. ;  but  if  these  obstacles 
are  not  very  extensive,  the  detachment  and  its  patrols  march  on  the  outer 
side  of  them,  in  order  to  examine  the  country  more  fully. 

§  126.  If  the  enemy  appears,  or  attacks  in  force,  the  commanders  of 
the  advanced,  flank,  and  rear  detachments  call  in  their  patrols,  and,  with- 
out accepting  combat,  retreat  upon  their  column  under  cover  of  skir- 
mishers, merely  endeavoring  to  delay  the  enemy  as  long  as  possible.  If, 
however,  an  opportunity  ofi'ers  to  capture  one  of  the  enemy's  patrols, 
without  delaying  its  own  march,  the  detachment  should  undoubtedly 
avail  itself  of  the  chance. 


OF   CAVAL]^Y   IN   TIME   OF   WAR.  421 


CHAPTER  III. 

DUTIES   OF  PATROLS  DURING  THE   MARCH. 

§  127.  Patrols  are  parties  of  various  strength  detached  either  from 
troops  on  the  march  to  examine  the  country,  or  from  troops  in  position 
to  obtain  news  of  the  enemy. 

In  this  chapter,  patrols  of  the  first  kind  are  alone  treated  of;  the 
duties  of  patrols  sent  out  by  troops  in  position  will  be  given  in  Part  II., 
Chapter  IV. 

§  128.  The  principal  duty  of  patrols  is  to  discover  the  enemy  betimes^ 
and  thus  secure  the  detachment  to  which  they  belong,  as  well  as  the  rest 
of  the  army,  against  sudden  attacks. 

§  129.  Patrols  should  not  consist  of  less  than  12  or  15  men;  for  they 
ought  to  be  able  to  attack  the  enemy's  patrols  by  surprise,  without  too 
much  risk. 

§  130.  The  men  composing  a  patrol  should  not  keep  too  close  together, 
but  stretch  out  as  much  as  the  ground  and  the  force  of  the  patrol  will 
permit;  never  forgetting  that  it  is  very  important  that  they  should  not 
all  be  captured  at  once. 

§  131.  Patrols  on  the  march  move  at  a  fixed  distance  from  their  de- 
•  tachment,  keep  up  their  communications,  never  lose  sight  of  each  other 
if  they  can  avoid  it,  and  form  a  continuous  protective  chain  around  the 
army. 

§  132.  In  a  patrol  of  15  men,  the  commander  arranges  them  as  follows : 
two  or  three  of  the  most  intelligent  and  best  mounted  men  are  sent  in 
advance;  if  one  is  sent  back  with  a  report,  the  others  remain  in  advance, 
and  keep  sight  of  the  object  reported.  The  rest  of  the  patrol  march  ac- 
cording to  the  arrangement  indicated  in  fig.  4,  at  150  or  200  paces  behind 
these  advanced  men,  having  their  rear  guard  about  100  paces  behind. 

§  133.  Fig.  5  shows  the  arrangement  of  a  patrol  of  30  men. 

Remarks. — 1st.  With  every  10  men  a  non-commissioned  officer  is  sent; 
80  men  and  over  are  commanded  by  an  officer. 

2d.  The  men  in  front,  on  the  flanks,  and  in  rear  of  a  patrol,  are  called 
patr  oilers. 

§  134.  The  flank  patrollers  regulate  themselves  on  the  position  of  the 
patrolj  which  is  on  the  road,  and  endeavor  not  to  lose  sight  of  it.  They 
take  care  not  to  be  separated  from  it  by  impassable  obstacles ;  for  this 
reason,  when  they  meet  with  such  places,  they  join  the  advanced  patrollers, 
or  the  main  patrol  itself,  until  the  obstacle  is  passed. 

§  135.  During  the  night  the  patrols  draw  near  to  their  detachment, 


422 


REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 


and  endeavor  to  connect  with  each  other  by  a  chain  of  men,  that  the 
enemy  may  not  slip  through  the  intervals  under  cover  of  the  darkness. 

§  136.  It  is  impossible   to   regulate  with  exactness  the  space  to  be 
covered  by  patrols,  but  the  following  remarks  will  serve  as  guides : 
Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 


Patrols  should  cover  and  protect  the  march,  but  ought  not  to  scatter  so 
much  as  to  be  unable  to  assemble  quickly  if  they  meet  the  enemy.  In  a 
level  country,  where  they  can  see  a  great  distance  in  advance,  there  is 
less  danger  in  stretching  out  than  in  a  broken,  wooded,  or  mountainous 
region.  The  main  consideration  is,  that  the  patrol  should  be  able  to 
survey  at  a  glance  the  whole  of  the  space  confided  to  it;  the  extent  of 
this  space  will,  therefore,  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground,  as  well 
as  upon  the  weather,  and  whether  the  march  is  at  night  or  in  the  daytime. 

§  137.  A  detachment  destined  to  attack  the  enemy  by  surprise  should 
not  send  out  its  patrols  so  far  as  one  intended  merely  to  reconnoitre^ 
because  the  enemy,  being  warned  by  the  appearance  of  the  patrols,  would 
be  on  the  alert. 

§  138.  Patrollers  should  look  around  carefully  on  all  sides,  and  often 
halt  to  listen.  If  they  hear  the  slightest  suspicious  noise,  however  in- 
definite in  its  nature,  particularly  at  night  or  in  an  obstructed  country, 
or  if  they  observe  dust,  smoke,  the  glitter  of  arms,  or  any  signs  whatever 
of  the  enemy,  such  as  the  sound  of  footsteps,  rumbling  of  wheels,  noise 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  .423 

of  horses,  &c,,  they  at  once  inform  the  nearest  non-commissioned  officer, 
who  reports  to  the  commander  of  the  detachment.  The  whole  party 
then  halts,  the  flank  patrols  face  outwards,  the  rear  guard  faces  to  the 
rear,  and  the  march  is  arrested  until  the  cause  of  the  noise  is  ascertained, 
or  the  object  which  attracted  attention  examined. 

Remark. — Reports  should  be  made  in  a  clear,  calm  tone  of  voice. 

§  139.  The  flank  patrols  ascend  every  eminence  on  the  side  of  their 
route,  and  remain  there,  facing  outwards,  until  the  detachment  passes  by 
or  sends  another  patrol  to  relieve  them. 

Remark. — In  ascending  a  hill  to  reconnoitre,  one  man  should  precede 
the  others,  riding  very  slowly;  when  near  the  top,  he  takes  off  his  cap 
and  moves  up  just  far  enough  to  see  over,  covering  himself  by  trees, 
bushes,  &c.,  as  well  as  possible;  in  this  manner  he  may  see  the  enemy 
without  being  discovered  by  them. 

§  140.  Patrols  turn  their  attention  to  every  thing  which  may  dis- 
close the  movements  of  troops  passing  by,  notice  the  direction  of  their 
march,  &c. 

§  141.  Patrols  should  examine  carefully  every  thing  which  may  con- 
ceal the  enemy,  such  as  houses,  woods,  coppices,  ravines,  &c.  In  passing 
by  such  places,  the  patrols  endeavor  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  occu- 
pied by  the  enemy,  and  then  either  occupy  them  themselves,  or  pass  by 
with  the  utmost  precaution.  Defiles,  bridges,  ravines,  hollow  ways,  dikes, 
and  rivers,  should  be  carefully  examined ;  having  passed  them,  the  front 
patroUers  should  at  once  place  themselves  on  the  highest  bank  to  observe 
the  environs. 

§  142.  A  special  patrol  of  2  or  3  men  is  sent  to  examine  any  remark- 
able object  which  is  too  far  off  to  be  visited  by  the  flank  patrollers;  the 
rest  halt,  and  await  their  return  :  such  patrols  should  move  at  a  moderate 
gait. 

§  143.  If  it  is  necessary  to  pass  through  a  village,  the  operation  is  con- 
ducted as  follows.  One  of  the  front  patrollers  approaches  it.  If  it  is  in 
the  day,  he  rides  through  several  streets  and  asks  for  the  chief  person  of 
the  place;  in  the  mean  time  the  other  front  patrollers  ride  along  the 
skirts  of  the  village.  Having  found  the  chief  person  of  the  place,  the 
front  patroller  conducts  him  to  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard, 
which  now  approaches  the  village ;  the  patroller  then  rides  through  the 
village  with  his  comrades,  and  halts  on  the  farther  side  in  some  elevated 
position.     There  they  await  the  arrival  of  the  advanced  guard. 

§  144.  If  a  village  is  to  be  passed  at  night,  the  front  patrollers  go 
quietly  to  the  first  house,  call  out  its  master,  take  him  away,  and  obtain 
the  necessary  information  from  him ;  afterwards  they  go  for  the  chief 
person  of  the  place. 

§  145.  Before  entering  a  woods,  the  front  patrollers  must  ascertain  that 


424*      REGULATIONS  FOR  FIELD  SERVICE 

the  enemy  does  not  occupy  the  skirts,  and  one  or  two  men  should  ride 
around  the  whole  woods,  if  it  is  not  too  extensive ;  all  the  cross-roads 
should  be  examined  to  the  distance  of  several  hundred  paces  by  flank 
patrols,  who  afterwards  overtake  the  patrol.  Before  entering  open  fields 
in  a  forest,  patrollers  should  ride  all  around  the  edges. 

§  146.  The  patrols  detain  all  persons  met  on  the  road,  and  send  them 
to  the  commander  of  the  detachment  for  examination.  The  commander 
retains,  under  guard,  all  who  are  suspicious  characters,  as  well  as  those 
who  have  witnessed  important  movements,  or  whose  testimony  is  of  such 
importance  as  to  need  verification. 

§  147.  Upon  the  appearance  of  hostile  patrols  and  patrollers,  flags. of 
truce,  or  deserters,  our  own  patrollers,  even  if  in  considerable  force,  at 
once  inform  the  commander  of  the  patrol,  who,  satisfying  himself  of  the 
true  state  of  the  case,  at  once  takes  the  necessary  measures. 

If  he  sees  a  weak  patrol  of  the  enemy,  or  single  soldiers  straggling  off 
for  pillage,  he  quietly  endeavors  to  seize  and  disarm  them ;  he  stops  the 
flag  of  truce,  blindfolds,  and  places  him  under  the  charge  of  a  trustworthy 
soldier,  who,  not  allowing  him  to  turn  back,  conducts  him  to  the  com- 
mander of  the  detachment. 

§  148.  Whenever  the  commander  of  a  patrol  perceives,  from  a  distance, 
the  approach  of  the  enemy  in  strong  force,  he  at  once  informs  the  com- 
mander of  the  detachment,  and  at  the  same  time  endeavors  to  get  nearer 
the  enemy  to  ascertain  his  strength,  &c. ;  finally,  he  retreats  upon  the 
detachment  without  exposing  himself. 

Remark. — In  this,  and  all  similar  cases,  the  party  falling  back  should 
move  as  slowly  and  in  as  good  order  as  possible. 

§  149.  A  patrol  only  gives  notice  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy  by 
firing  when  it  is  suddenly  driven  in  and  has  no  time  to  send  a  report. 
Therefore,  a  patrol  should  be  in  no  hurry  to  fire  when  it  discovers  the 
enemy )  for  it  may  happen  that  we  see  him  before  he  discovers  us,  and 
then,  if  we  are  only  engaged  in  watching  him,  we  should  endeavor  to  fall 
back  on  the  detachment  without  being  observed. 

§  150.  Upon  the  first  shot  fired  by  the  patrollers,  the  whole  patrol 
forms,  and  the  commander  acts  according  to  circumstances.  If  the  enemy 
is  the  stronger,  he  falls  back  upon  the  detachment,  covering  himself 
by  skirmishers ;  but,  if  it  is  possible,  he  endeavors  to  capture  the  enemy's 
patrollers,  and  sends  back  those  taken  to  the  commander  of  the  detach- 
ment. 

If  attacked  by  surprise,  the  patrol  should  defend  itself  to  the  utmost, 
and  fire  a  few  shots,  even  if  in  the  air,  to  warn  the  detachment  of  its 
danger.  In  such  cases,  it  is  not  always  advisable  to  retreat  by  the  direct 
road. 

Remark. — The  commanders  of  parties  must  bear  in  mind  that  there 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  425 

are  few  feircumstances  which  can  justify  the  surrender  of  cavalry ;  proper 
precautions  on  the  march  render  a  surprise  next  to  impossible ;  and  when 
a  party  of  cavalry  is  attacked,  no  matter  how  suddenly,  or  by  what  supe- 
riority of  force,  a  determined  and  instantaneous  charge  will  always  enable 
the  greater  part  to  escape  in  safety.  Officers  and  men  should  therefore 
always  have  their  wits  about  them,  and  their  weapons  in  constant  readi- 
ness for  use. 

§  151.  During  the  march,  patrols  are  not  permitted  to  wander  out  of 
the  way,  nor  to  halt  to  rest  at  their  discretion. 

§  152.  To  be  certain  that  their  orders  are  executed,  the  commanders 
of  patrols  should  be  alternately  at  the  head  and  on  the  flanks ;  in  a  word, 
everywhere,  that  they  may  see  and  superintend  every  thing  for  themselves. 

§  153.  Should  it  happen  that  two  patrols  or  patrollerf  meet  on  the 
march,  even  if  they  belong  to  the  same  regiment,  they  should  challenge 
each  other,  as  directed  in  §  337. 

§  154.  During  halts,  the  patrols  continue  to  secure  the  troops  against 
a  sudden  attack.  Choosing  positions  from  which  it  is  easy  to  examine  the 
country  around,  they  halt  in  the  same  order  as  that  in  which  they  marched, 
and  face  outward. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


IN  REFERENCE  TO  REGULATING  MARCHES  ACCORDING  TO  THE 

LOCALITY. 

0/  advanced  guards. 

§  155.  It  is  but  seldom  that  any  one  arm  is  exclusively  employed  when 
near  the  enemy ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  usual  to  operate  with  a  combined 
force  of  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery,  so  that  it  may  be  always  possible 
to  employ  one  or  the  other  arm,  according  to  circumstances  and  the 
locality. 

§  156.  If  the  main  body  is  composed  of  the  different  arms,  then  the 
advanced  guard  is  similarly  constituted,  that  it  may  be  able  to  act  in  all 
localities. 

§  157.  The  composition  of  such  an  advanced  guard  depends — 

1st.  Upon  the  object  and  nature  of  its  intended  operations.  During 
marches  in  pursuit  it  is  reinforced  by  cavalry ;  but  if  it  is  to  make  an 
obstinate  resistance,  it  is  strengthened  with  much  infantry  and  artillery. 
In  general,  light  cavalry  are  the  best  for  advanced  guards,  wherever  the 
nature  of  the  ground  permits  them  to  operate ;  but  infantry  are  necessary 
to  support  them.  Mounted  rifles  and  mounted  engineer  troops  are  of 
great  service  in  advanced  guards. 


426  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

2d.  The  composition  of  the  advanced  guard  depends  also  upon  the 
locality  :  if  the  ground  is  broken,  much  infantry  is  required ;  if  it  is  open, 
much  cavalry,  and,  in  general,  light  troops. 

§  158.  The  order  of  march  of  an  advanced  guard  depends,  principally, 
upon  its  composition,  the  order  of  march  of  the  main  body,  the  locality, 
&c.  The  main  rule  is,  that  it  should  never  be  too  much  divided,  so  that 
there  may  always  be  a  considerable  force  in  hand  to  seek  the  enemy  more 
boldly  and  detain  him  longer.  Therefore,  even  when  the  main  body 
moves  in  several  columns,  the  principal  part  of  the  advanced  guard 
marches  on  the  main  road,  sending  only  small  parties  on  the  others  to 
watch  the  enemy  and  detach  patrols  as  far  as  possible  in  all  directions. 
In  an  open,  level  country,  the  cavalry  marches  at  the  head ;  in  a  broken 
country,  ther?  is  only  a  small  detachment  of  cavalry  at  the  head,  to  fur- 
nish advanced  detachments  and  patrols.  An  advanced  detachment  of 
cavalry,  which  sends  out  patrols  in  front  and  on  its  flanks,  moves  at  the 
distance  of  a  few  miles  in  front  of  the  advanced  guard.  Small  detach- 
ments of  cavalry  move  in  a  line  with  it  on  the  other  roads ;  also  others 
on  the  flanks  of  the  main  advanced  guard,  to  secure  it  against  being 
turned.  All  the  front  and  flank  detachments  maintain  a  constant  mutual 
communication  by  means  of  patrols,  and  thus  keep  in  sight  the  whole 
space  in  front  of  the  main  body  over  a  great  extent.  But  if  the  flank 
columns  of  the  main  body  march  at  a  great  distance  from  the  main  road 
followed  by  the  advanced  guard,  then,  in  addition  to  this  last,  each  flank 
column  detaches  a  small  advanced  guard  for  its  own  security. 

§  159.  If  the  advanced  guard  is  composed  of  diff"erent  arms,  its  dis- 
tance from  the  main  body  depends  not  only  upon  its  strength,  but  also 
on  the  following  circumstances :  1.  On  its  composition.  Cavalry  may 
advance  much  farther  than  infantry.  2.  Upon  the  locality.  The  more 
fully  the  nature  of  the  country  secures  the  advanced  guard  against  being 
turned,  the  farther  may  it  move  from  the  main  .body.  3.  Upon  the 
object  in  view.  Prior  to  defensive  combats  in  position,  it  is  advantageous 
to  have  the  advanced  guard  as  far  from  the  main  body  as  possible,  in 
order  to  secure  time  for  making  the  necessary  arrangements ;  but  if  tjie 
main  body  is  already  concentrated  for  a  decisive  attack  upon  the  enemy, 
it  is  sometimes  well  to  be  entirely  without  an  advanced  guard ;  during  a 
pursuit,  the  main  body  should  follow  the  advanced  guard  as  closely  as 
possible.  4.  Upon  the  order  of  march  of  the  main  body.  The  longer 
the  time  needed  by  the  main  body  to  form  in  order  of  battle,  on  account 
of  the  intervals  between  the  columns,  the  nature  of  the  ground  between 
them,  the  length  of  the  columns,  &c.,  so  much  farther  forward  should 
the  advanced  guard  be  pushed.  In  general,  the  distance  of  the  advanced 
guard  from  the  head  of  the  main  body  should  be  a  little  greater  than  the 
interval  between  the  outside  columns  of  the  main  body. 


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C^F    CAVALRY    IN   TIME    OF    WAR.  429 

• 

§  160.  Fig.  6  gives  gin  example  of  the  arrangement  of  an  advanced 
guard  composed  of  one  brigade  of  light  cavalry,  8  battalions  of  infantry, 
one  battalion  of  sappers,  6  pieces  of  horse  artillery,  and  12  pieces  of  foot 
artillery;  the  main  body  following  in  3  columns.  Disregarding  minute 
details,  this  is  established  as  the  basis  of  the  arrangement  of  an  advanced 
guard,  without  regard  to  the  ground. 

Whatever  slight  changes  may  be  made  necessary  by  the  nature  of  the 
country  can  easily  be  made  with  the  aid  of  a  map  and  the  special  inform- 
ation obtained  in  other  ways. 

§  161.  If  the  country  is  partially  broken  and  obstructed,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  have  four  or  five  companies  of  infantry  just  behind  the  leading 
detachment  of  cavalry,  to  examine  places  that  are  difficult  or  dangerous 
for  the  latter. 

§  162.  Upon  the  plains  the  patrols  are  of  cavalry;  in  a  mountainous 
region,  of  infantry.  In  the  latter  case,  not  only  the  advanced  detach- 
ments and  patrols  are  of  infantry,  but  also  the  head  and  rear  of  every 
column ;  the  cavalry  and  artillery  march  in  the  middle,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  infantry. 

§  163.  In  passing  through  a  village,  the  infantry  enter  it  first,  if  there 
are  any  with  the  advanced  guard ;  the  cavalry  either  ride  rapidly  around 
it,  or,  according  to  circumstances,  halt  a  little  before  reaching  the  village, 
and  wait  until  the  infantry  have  passed  through. 

§  164.  The  passage  of  important  bridges,  ravines,  and  defiles,  should 
be  efi*ected  in  the  same  manner,  the  infantry  examining  them.  As  soon 
as  the  infantry  have  crossed  and  formed  on  the  other  side,  the  cavalry 
send  out  patrols  to  a  great  distance  to  examine  the  ground  in  front,  before 
the  main  body  of  the  advanced  guard  begins  to  cross. 

The  advanced  guard,  having  crossed  rapidly,  forms  in  front  of  the 
passage  to  cover  the  debouche  of  the  main  body.  The  distance  of  such 
a  position  from  the  passage  should  be  such  that,  in  the  event  of  being 
attacked,  the  advanced  guard  may  not  be  too  quickly  forced  back  upon 
the  main  body  while  debouching,  and  that  the  latter  may  have  ample 
timer  to  form  without  disorder. 

§  165.  Since  attacks  should  be  most  expected  when  passing  through 
defiles,  or  when  issuing  from  them,  they  should  be  traversed  rapidly,  and 
with  the  most  extended  front  possible,  to  prevent  the  column  from  stretch- 
ing out.  In  passing  long  defiles,  the  troops  should  occasionally  halt  for 
a  moment,  to  close  up  and  re-establish  order. 

§  166.  As  for  the  rest,  an  advanced  guard,  possessing  a  certain  degree  of 
independence,  without  neglecting  any  of  the  precautions  here  laid  down, 
should  not  be  too  appreheneive,  and,  in  examining  the  country,  ought  not 
to  detain  itself  with  objects  which,  from  their  nature,  cannot  conceal  the 
enemy  in  sufficient  force  to  make  him  dangerous  to  the  advanced  guard. 


430  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERV.ICE 

§  167.  In  very  mountainous  regions  it  is  necessary  to  rely  upon  the 
infantry  alone;  the  cavalry  and  train  remaining  in  rear,  and  not  entering 
the  defiles  until  they  have  been  occupied.  Here  the  infantry  patrols  are 
sent  out  as  far  as  possible,  and  occupy  the  heights  from  which  the  direc- 
tion of  the  columns  may  be  seen,  until  relieved  by  the  patrols  of  the 
rear  guard,  which  is  also  of  infantry.  In  this  manner  the  cavalry,  which 
the  enemy  would  attack  in  such  places  in  preference,  is  protected.  Not 
a  gorge  or  defile  should  be  left  unexamined;  for  in  the  mountains  an 
attack  may  be  expected  at  any  moment. 

§  168.  In  a  wooded  country  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard 
takes  nearly  the  same  precaution  as  in  the  mountains. 

If  the  forest  is  deep,  but  not  broad,  detachments  of  cavalry  ride  along 
the  skirts,  which  are  occupied  by  infantry  skirmishers  as  supports ;  if  the 
forest  is  dense,  but  not  deep,  the  infantry  lead.  The  infantry  place 
themselves  along  the  skirts  of  the  wood  on  both  sides  of  the  road ;  the 
cavalry  then  passes  through  at  a  fast  trot,  forms  on  the  plain  beyond,  and 
there  awaits  the  rest  of  the  column. 

§  169.  When  the  road  passes  through  a  country  but  little  obstructed 
by  defiles,  villages,  or  other  obstacles  to  the  movements  of  cavalry,  and 
there  is  no  infantry  with  the  advanced  guard,  mounted  rifles  are  very 
useful ;  finally,  the  enemy,  in  retreating  through  such  a  country,  leaves 
infantry  at  these  obstacles  to  arrest  the  pursuit  of  the  cavalry,  and  delay 
until  the  arrival  of  the  infantry;  in  such  cases  mounted  rifles  or  dis- 
mounted dragoons  will  produce  sure  results  by  acting  against  the  enemy's 
infantry. 

OP   THE   MAIN   BODY. 

§  170.  It  remains  to  be  said,  in  reference  to  this,  that  the  nature  of  the 
country  must  determine  its  order  of  march,  whether  cavalry  or  infantry 
are  to  lead.  If  the  country  is  broken,  particularly  if  It  is  wooded,  there 
is  great  danger  in  placing  the  cavalry  at  the  head;  for  it  may  not  only  be 
unable  to  act,  but,  if  forced  to  retreat,  may  carry  disorder  into  the 
infantry  following. 

The  artillery  should  march  in  the  midst  of  the  other  troops;  but  a  few 
pieces  may  move  with  the  head  of  the  column,  to  protect  it  in  case  of 
meeting  the  enemy  suddenly. 

§  171.  If  there  are  infantry,  then  in  traversing  extensive  forests,  in 
which  parties  of  the  enemy  may  easily  conceal  themselves_,  the  flank 
detachments  and  patrols  qf  cavalry  are  replaced  by  infantry. 

OP  THE   REAR    GUARD. 

§  172.  In  §  19  the  duties  of  a  rear  guard  iti  a  retreat  are  described  as 
being  important,  and  sometimes  even  more  important  fhan  those  of  the 
advanced  guard  in  the  off'ensive.     Therefore,  not  only  the  force  but  the 


OF   CAVALRy   IN    TIME    OF   WAR.  431 

composition  of  the  rear  guard  should  correspond  to  the  importance  of  its 
duties ;  if  the  main  body  consists  of  troops  of  the  different  arms,  the  rear 
guard  should  be  composed  in  like  manner. 

§  173.  Its  order  of  march  must  depend  not  only  upon  the  locality,  the 
number,  direction,  and  separation  of  the  roads,  and  the  degree  of  security 
of  the  flanks,  but  also  upon  the  order  of  march  of  the  main  body,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  pursuing  enemy  operates.  Frequently  the  march 
of  the  rear  guard  becomes  a  fighting  retreat.  If  the  enemy  does  not 
follow  directly  on  its  heels,  its  arrangements  will  generally  be  nearly  the 
same  as  those  of  an  advanced  guard  in  the  offensive;  but  in  this  case  it 
is  necessary  to  turn  the  closest  attention  to  the  roads  on  the  flanks,  be- 
cause the  pursuing  enemy  usually  endeavors  to  turn  the  retreating  rear 
guard  with  a  part  of  his  force,  in  order  to  keep  it  constantly  in  retreat 
and  prevent  it  from  holding  the  positions  it  has  selected.  For  this  reason, 
there  should  be  on  the  flank  roads  not  only  patrols  from  the  rear  guard, 
but  parties  strong  enough  to  hold  the  enemy  in  check. 

§  174.  In  districts  where  there  are  extensive  plains,  the  rear  of  the 
rear  guard  is  reinforced  by  all  its  cavalry,  so  that  the  infantry  may  move 
forward  to  occupy  any  hills,  woods,  or  other  favorable  positions. 

§  175.  As  in  a  mountainous,  wooded,  or  broken  country,  the  cavalry 
of  the  advanced  guard  marches  in  rear  of  the  other  troops,  so,  in  a  rear 
guard  retreating  through  a  similar  country,  the  cavalry  forms  the  head 
of  the  column,  marching  under  the  protection  of  the  infantry,  with  which 
latter  there  is  only  a  small  party  of  cavalry  for  sending  rapid  information 
of  the  approach  of  the  enemy. 

§  176.  It  is  stated  in  §  115  that,  to  preserve  the  requisite  good  order, 
the  retreat  of  the  rear  guard  should  not  be  by  all  the  troops  at  once,  but 
by  alternate  portions,  so  that  one  part  may  fight  to  protect  the  retreat 
of  the  other.  According  to  this,  upon  approaching  a  defile  or  bridge, 
around  which  the  cavalry  cannot  pass,  the  greatest  part  of  it  should  be 
sent  on  early  to  pass  through. 

A  few  guns  are  placed  in  front  of  such  obstacles,  under  the  protection 
of  a  party  of  infantry,  to  keep  the  enemy  at  a  distance,  while  the  rest  of 
the  infantry  and  artillery  pass  the  defile,  availing  themselves  of  all  the 
heights  on  both  sides  to  protect  those  in  retreat  against  the  attack  of  the 
enemy,  and  to  cover  the  flanks.  Therefore,  the  ground  should  be  ex- 
amined early,  that  it  may  be  occupied  betimes  for  defence  by  infantry 
and  artillery.  After  having  passed  the  defile,  the  cavalry  forms  in  order 
of  battle,  out  of  cannon  range. 

If  the  enemy  endeavors  to  pursue  the  rear  guard  beyond  the  defile,  the 
cavalry  should,  if  the  ground  permits,  stop  or  delay  his  pursuit  by  an 
attack  upon  the  front  and  flanks  of  the  head  of  his  column,  so  as  to  give 
the  infantry  and  artillery  time  to  gain  the  necessary  ground.     In  such 

26 


432  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

cases,  there  is  an  advantage  in  having  passed  the  defile,  so  as  to  attack 
with  a  superior  front  the  head  of  the  enemy's  column  as  he  debouches. 

§  177.  If  a  village  is  to  be  traversed,  it  is  first  occupied  by  a  sufficient 
force  of  infantry,  and  the  cavalry  then  either  passes  around  it,  or,  which 
is  quicker,  rides  rapidly  through  it,  if  this  can  be  done  without  masking 
the  fire  of  the  infantry.  Having  passed  beyond  the  village,  the  cavalry 
and  horse  artillery  come  into  position  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  infantry. 

§  178.  In  a  retreat,  dismounted  rifles  or  dragoons,  availing  themselves 
of  the  obstacles  of  the  ground,  may  arrest  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  with- 
out fearing,  as  in  the  case  of  infantry,  to  remain  behind  the  main  body 
of  the  rear  guard. 

§  179.  Finally,  if  the  enemy  acts  imprudently,  the  rear  guard  may  form 
ambuscades  for  him,  or  force  him  to  slacken  the  pursuit  by  resuming  the 
ofiiensive  for  a  time. 

§  180.  The  commander  of  the  rear  guard  should  always  regulate  him- 
self upon  the  movements  of  the  main  body,  always  holding  every  position 
as  obstinately  as  possible,  lest  a  premature  retreat  on  his  part  should  bring 
the  enemy  suddenly  upon  the  main  body. 


PART  II. 

PRECAUTIONS    TO    BE    OBSERVED   IN    CAMPS*    FOR 
SECURITY  AGAINST  THE  ENEMY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

DUTIES  OF  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  OUTPOSTS. 

Article  1. 
Of  the  outposts  in  general. 

§  181.  The  outposts  are  detachments  upon  whom  is  imposed  the  duty 
of  securing  the  other  troops  against  sudden  attacks. 

§  182.  They  are  independent  of,  and  in  addition  to,  the  camp  and 
quarter  guards,  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  the  interior  order  and 
police  of  the  camp. 

§  183.  Light  cavalry  are  employed  on  outpost  duty  wherever  the  ground 
permits  them  to  act;  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity,  the  outposts  consist  of 
infantry. 

(*)  The  term  camp  is  here  used  in  its  most  general  sense,  including  all  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  troops  when  halted,  whether  in  tents,  huts,  bivouac,  or  villages,  provided 
they  are  not  in  cantonments  or  winter  quarters.  The  term  encampment  refers  particu- 
larly to  a  camp  of  tents  or  huts. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF   WAR.  433 

§  184.  The  outposts  consist  of: 

1.  A  chain  of  double  vedettes. 

2.  Pickets,  which  are  the  immediate  supports  of  the  vedettes. 

3.  Main  guards,  placed  as  supports  in  rear  of  the  pickets. 

§  185.  If  the  outposts  are  pushed  very  far  to  the  front,  or  if  the  nature 
of  the  ground  is  such  as  to  render  their  retreat  difficult,  parties,  called 
reserves  of  the  outposts,  are  placed  between  the  outposts  and  the  troops 
guarded,  to  serve  as  a  reserve  and  support  for  the  former. 

§  186.  The  outposts  should  enclose  all  the  places  and  observe  all  the 
roads  by  which  the  enemy  can  approach  the  camp  guarded. 

§  187.  The  chain  of  outposts  is  placed  in  front  of  the  general  posi- 
tion of  the  troops,  so  as  to  intersect  all  the  roads  leading  towards  the 
enemy.     It  forms  a  curved  line,  falling  back  on  the  flanks. 

§  188.  The  outposts  should  be  pushed  so  far  to  the  front  that,  while  in 
no  danger  of  being  cut  off,  they  may  give  timely  notice  of  the  enemy's 
approach,  and  keep  him  long  enough  in  check  to  enable  the  troops  guarded 
to  prepare  to  receive  him. 

For  this  purpose  the  chain  of  mounted  vedettes  is  usually  placed  at  not 
more  than  three  miles  in  front  of  the  camp;  the  pickets  not  more  than 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  rear  of  the  vedettes;  the  main  guards  at  about 
the  same  distance  behind  the  pickets. 

§  189.  The  interval  between  the  pairs  of  vedettes  composing  the  chain 
should  be  such  that  in  the  daytime  they  can  see  each  other,  and  in  the 
night  hear  every  thing  that  happens  between  them. 

§  190.  The  object  of  the  pickets  and  main  guards  being  merely  to  receive 
the  chain,  they  are  composed  of  small  numbers  of  men.  Therefore,  a  picket 
consists  of  about  a  platoon,  and  a  main  guard  of  about  a  company. 

§  191.  The  commander-in-chief  determines  approximately  the  general 
direction  and  extent  of  the  chain ;  in  conformity  therewith,  there  are  de- 
tailed the  number  of  men  necessary  to  guard  the  space  designated.  The 
subordinate  commanders  carry  out  the  details  as  follows : 

§  192.  A  field  officer,  or  captain,  commanding  two  companies,  conducts 
them  to  the  place  where  the  main  guard  is  to  be  posted ;  leaving  one  com- 
pany there,  he  takes  the  other  to  form  the  pickets  and  vedettes,  and 
accompanies  one  of  the  platoons  himself,  to  superintend  the  proper  posting 
of  the  vedettes.  Separating  gradually, — one  moving  to  the  right,  the  other 
to  the  left, — the  two  platoons  continue  to  move  on  until  the  interval 
between  them  is  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile,  and  their  distance  from  the 
main  guard  about  the  same ;  they  then  halt.  The  commander  of  each 
platoon,  having  cut  off  6  men  for  patrols  and  carrying  reports,  divides  the 
rest  of  his  platoon  into  3  reliefs. 

He  then  conducts  the  first  relief  to  the  chain.  The  non-commissioned 
officer  designated  to  post  the  vedettes  accompanies  the  relief;  if  there  is 


434  REGULATIONS    FOR   FIELD    SERVICE 

but  one  officer  with  the  platoon,  the  senior  non-commissioned  officer  takes 
command  of  the  picket  until  the  return  of  the  officer. 

The  commander  of  the  picket  having  conducted  the  first  relief  to  one 
flank  of  the  line  he  is  to  occupy,  posts  the  vedettes  so  that  they  may  be  in 
full  communication  with  the  vedettes  of  the  neighboring  pickets.  The 
captain  of  the  company  which  furnishes  the  pickets  will  command  the 
more  important  of  the  two  pickets. 

§  193.  Supposing  each  platoon  to  consist  of  30  men,  the  main  guard 
will  consist  of  60,  and  each  picket,  deducting  the  six  men  for  patrols,  of 
24  men;  each  picket  will  thus  furnish  4  pairs  of  vedettes,  the  two 
together  8  pairs ;  supposing  the  intervals  between  the  pairs  of  vedettes  to 
be  from  300  to  500  paces,  the  line  occupied  will  be  from  2,400  to  4,000 
paces.  In  this  manner  two  companies,  each  60  strong,  will  furnish  a 
main  guard  and  two  pickets,  which  may  watch  a  space  of  about  2  miles. 
(See  fig.  7.) 

Article  2. 
Duties  of  the  vedettes  of  the  advanced  chain. 

§  194.  In  each  pair  of  vedettes,  one  is  designated  as  the  chief  vedette. 
Both  remain  mounted ;  the  one  in  front  has  his  carbine  advanced,  or  pistol 
drawn ;  the  vedette  in  rear  is  permitted  to  sling  his  carbine. 

§  195.  For  the  purpose  of  challenging  all  who  approach  the  chain,  the 
vedettes  are  furnished  with  the  countersign ;  they  are  to  remember  it  and 
keep  it  secret. 

§  196.  They  must  be  always  vigilant  and  cautious ;  therefore,  every 
thing  which  may  in  the  least  distract  their  attention  is  strictly  forbidden, 
such  as  talking,  smoking,  whistling,  singing,  &c.;  even  horses  that  are 
much  in  the  habit  of  neighing  are  not  placed  in  the  chain. 

§  197.  They  must  keep  in  view  all  the  space  between  them,  so  that 
individuals  may  not  cross  clandestinely. 

Therefore,  one  man  in  each  pair  should,  in  turn,  look  and  listen  care- 
fully, lest  any  thing  occur  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy  or  of  the  next 
pairs ;  the  other  man  places  himself  some  paces  behind  the  first,  to  relieve 
the  tension  of  sight  and  hearing. 

During  the  day,  in  open  country,  they  merely  look  towards  the  neigh- 
boring pairs;  in  a  rough,  obstructed  country,  at  night,  or  in  a  fog,  when  it 
is  impossible  to  see  the  next  pairs,  one  man,  in  his  turn,  carrying  his 
weapons  as  prescribed  for  the  front  vedette  in  §  194,  must  constantly  ride 
along  the  chain  to  the  next  pair,  or  until  meeting  one  of  its  members. 
When  they  are  posted  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  or  very  near  him,  they  may 
give  each  other  preconcerted  signals,  (such  as  tapping  the  carbine,  or  some 
such  noise,)  being  careful,  however,  that  the  signals  employed  are  of  such 
a  nature  as  not  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  enemy. 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR. 


435 


§  198.  Upon  observing  any  thing  whatever  in  the  direction  of  the 
enemy,  as,  for  example,  extraordinary  movements,  dust,  noise,  kindling  or 


JbMd^miU 


Fig.  7. 


i 


I 


t 


tSbmitM:  milB 


';->«^ 


Arrangement  of  the  chain  of  vedettes,  pickets,  and  main  guard  furnished  by  two 

companies. 

extinguishing  fires,  changes  in  his  outposts,  drawing  them  in  or  rein- 
forcing them,  &c.,  the  chief  vedette  sends  in  the  other  to  inform  the  com- 
mander of  the  picket,  remaining  himself  on  the  spot  to  continue  watch- 
ing what  attracted  his  attention. 


436  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

In  the  daytime,  when  in  full  view  of  the  picket,  instead  of  one  of  the 
vedettes  riding  in  to  report,  they  may,  in  certain  cases,  act  as  follows :  If 
any  thing  suspicious  is  observed  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy,  such  as 
dust,  glittering  of  arms,  &c.,  one  of  the  vedettes  will  move  his  horse  in  a 
circle  at  a  walk ;  upon  this,  the  commander  of  the  picket  will  take  3  or  4 
men  and  at  once  ride  to  the  vedette  to  examine  the  matter  for  himself.  If 
the  vedettes  discover  a  party  of  the  enemy  advancing  towards  them,  but  at 
a  great  distance,  one  of  them  will  move  his  horse  in  a  circle  at  a  trot,  on 
which  the  officer  will  act  as  just  prescribed.  If  the  vedettes  discover  a 
party  of  the  enemy  coming  towards  them,  and  not  more  than  a  mile  oflF, 
one  of  them  will  at  once  move  his  horse  in  a  circle  at  a  gallop,  on  which 
the  officer  will  act  according  to  circumstances. 

By  both  the  vedettes  riding  in  a  circle  at  the  same  time,  in  the  same 
and  opposite  directions,  and  at  the  diflFerent  gaits,  the  number  of  signals 
may  be  much  increased. 

§  199.  Unless  they  have  special  orders  to  the  contrary,  the  vedettes 
permit  no  on^,  to  cross  the  chain  towards  the  enemy,  except  officers'  de- 
tachments and  patrols  personally  known  to  them.  If  they  observe  any 
one  attempting  to  steal  over,  they  detain  him  until  the  arrival  of  the 
relief  or  patrol,  and  then  send  him  to  the  commander  of  the  picket. 

§  200.  If  the  commander  of  the  picket  approaches  in  the  daytime, 
they  do  not  challenge  him,  but  both  vedettes  advance  carbine  or  draw 
pistol,  and  the  chief  vedette  alone  reports  whether  any  thing  worthy  of 
the  slightest  attention  has  been  observed. 

§  201.  If  any  person,  not  personally  known  to  the  vedettes,  approaches 
along  the  chain,  the  front  vedette  halts  him  at  50  paces  from  the  post,  by 
crying,  in  a  low  tone,  ^^Halt!  Who  comes  there  ?^'  If  the  reply  is  satis- 
factory, and  the  orders  are  to  pass  persons  with  the  countersign,  he  then 
cries,  ^^ Advance,  and  give  the  countersign  T'  or,  if  it  is  a  party  that  has 
approached,  he  directs  one  person  to  advance  and  give  the  countersign, 
not  allowing  him  to  approach  nearer  than  ten  paces  for  the  purpose.  If 
the  party  challenged  does  not  reply,  and  persists  in  attempting  to  pass  the 
chain,  the  front  vedette  cocks  his  piece,  goes  to  meet  him,  aiming  at  him, 
halts  close  to  him,  and  twice  repeats  the  challenge,  ^^Halt!  Who  comes 
there?"  If  the  person  does  not  reply  to  the  third  challenge,  the  vedette 
shoots  him. 

Remark. — It  is  to  be  understood  that  vedettes  fire  only  upon  persons 
who  are  armed,  or  resist ;  with  regard  to  others  who  approach  the  chain 
without  the  countersign,  they  are  merely  stopped,  and  treated  as  directed 
in  the  following  section. 

§  202.  If  the  person  approaching  has  the  countersign,  then,  in  the  day- 
time, the  vedette  allows  him  to  pass,  but  not  nearer  than  10  paces  to  the 
post ;  if  he  has  not  the  countersign,  the  vedette  directs  him  to  halt  at  50 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  437 

paces  from  the  post,  and  turn  his  back  to  it,  (if  Ite  is  on  horseback,  he  is 
made  to  dismount,)  and  awaits  the  arrival  of  the  relief  or  patrol,  to  whom 
he  turns  him  over  as  a  prisoner,  to  be  taken  to  the  commander  of  the 
picket. 

§  203.  In  the  night,  when  it  is  impossible  to  recognize  the  faces  of 
those  approaching,  the  vedettes  act  in  the  following  manner  :  If  the  reply 
to  the  challenge,  ^^  Halt  I  Who  comes  there. ^"  is,  a  (/eneral,  an  officer  j 
patrol,  relief,  or  rounds,  the  countersign  is  demanded,  as  already  ex- 
plained, and  if  it  is  properly  given,  the  party  is  allowed  to  pass.  If  the 
party  does  not  know  the  countersign,  one  of  the  sentinels  at  once  rides  to 
the  commander  of  the  picket  and  receives  his  orders.  But  other  military 
employes,  and  enlisted  men,  even  if  they  have  the  countersign,  are  not 
permitted  to  cross  the  chain  at  night,  but  are  treated  as  is  directed  in  the 
preceding  section  for  people  who  do  not  know  the  countersign  in  the  day. 

§  204.  Whilst  the  chief  vedette  interrogates  the  person  who  has  ap- 
proached the  chain,  the  other  cocks  his  piece,  and  watches  in  all  direc- 
tions with  redoubled  attention. 

§  205.  If  a  flag  of  truce,  or,  in  general,  any  one  whose  business  is  of 
such  a  nature  as  not  to  permit  him  to  await  the  arrival  of  a  relief  or 
patrol,  approaches  the  chain,  the  chief  vedette  sends  in  the  other  to 
report  to  the  commander  of  the  picket. 

Flags  of  truce  are  not  received  at  night,  except  under  very  peculiar 
circumstances. 

§  206.  If  any  one  whatsoever  approaches  the  post  from  the  direction 
of  the  enemy,  even  if  of  their  own  command,  the  vedettes  halt  them, 
and  do  not  allow  them  to  approach  within  50  paces;  the  junior  vedette 
then  rides  in  to  report  to  the  commander  of  the  picket. 

The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  case  of  a  returning  patrol,  if  it 
consists  of  men  of  the  same  regiment  as  the  vedettes,  and  if  the  latter 
recognize  the  persons  of  the  officer  and  men  composing  it. 

§  207.  If  deserters  from  the  enemy  approach,  the  vedette  halts  them 
also  at  50  paces,  orders  them  to  lay  down  their  arms,  to  dismount,  if 
mounted,  and  to  retire  a  little  beyond  the  50  paces. 

Then  the  junior  vedette  rides  in  to  report  to  the  commander  of  the 
picket,  while  the  other,  cocking  his  piece,  watches  the  new  arrivals. 

§  208.  If  the  vedettes  discover  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  they  at 
once  inform  the  commander  of  the  picket ;  but  if  he  appears  suddenly  in 
front  of  the  chain,  they  give  the  alarm  by  firing.  They  should  fire  only 
when  he  approaches  resolutely  :  to  fire  without  necessity,  and  without 
being  satisfied  that  it  is  really  the  enemy,  would  be  merely  to  create 
useless  alarm. 

§  209.  Upon  hearing  a  shot,  the  other  vedettes  redouble  their  vigilance 
and  attention,  exerting  themselves  to  discover  what  is  going  on  where 


438  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD   SERVICE 

the  shot  was  fired,  but  not  leaving  their  posts  without  receiving  a  signal 
or  special  orders  to  do  so,  unless  driven  in,  when  they  will  rally  on  the 
picket. 

Article  3. 
Duties  of  the  commanders  of  the  pickets. 

§  210.   With  every  picket  there  must  be  an  officer  and  a  trumpeter. 

§  211.  The  officer  detailed  for  duty  with  a  picket  should  have  the 
'parole,  watchwordj  and  countersign  for  the  day. 

Upon  reaching  his  post,  he  communicates  the  countersign  to  all  the 
men ;  he  gives  the  watchword  only  to  the  non-commissioned  officers  who 
are  to  be  sent  out  with  patrols  and  reliefs. 

§  212.  Having  conducted  his  platoon  to  the  position  it  is  to  occupy, 
he  acts  as  directed  in  §  192,  and  posts  the  1st  relief  in  person.  The  non- 
commissioned officer  who  is  to  post  the  next  relief  rides  with  him;  if 
there  is  no  other  officer  present,  the  senior  non-commissioned  officer  re- 
maining with  the  picket  sees  that  all  the  men  remain  mounted  and  fully 
ready  to  move,  until  the  return  of  the  commander. 

§  213.  The  first  relief  is  posted  as  in  time  of  peace. 

§  214.  When  posting  each  vedette,  the  commander  of  the  picket  gives 
them  their  instructions  where  to  stand,  and  to  what  their  attention  should 
be  chiefly  directed;  he  points  out  the  direction  in  which  they  are  to 
retreat  in  case  of  necessity,  and  designates  the  number  of  each  post.  He 
designates  the  most  reliable  and  experienced  man  of  each  pair  of  vedettes 
as  chief  vedette. 

§  215.  In  arranging  the  intervals  between  the  pairs  of  vedettes,  he 
should  endeavor  to  post  them  in  positions  whence  they  can  see  as  far  as 
possible  in  all  directions  and  at  the  same  time  be  as  little  conspicuous  to 
the  enemy  as  practicable ;  for  this  purpose  it  is  best  to  place  them  on  the 
heights  during  the  day,  and  behind  the  hill,  at  its  foot,  during  the  night. 

§  216.  The  intervals  between  the  pairs  should  be  such  that  they  can 
see  all  the  ground  between  them ;  no  precise  rules  can  be  laid  down  in 
respect  to  this,  as  in  some  cases  the  chain  will  be  close,  and  in  others 
scattered;  as  in  an  open  country  there  is  no  advantage  in  an  unneces- 
sarily close  chain,  so  in  an  obstructed  country  it  is  improper  to  place  the 
vedettes  far  apart.  In  some  localities  it  may  be  necessary  to  post  them 
not  more  than  100  paces  apart,  while  in  others  the  intervals  may  be  500 
paces. 

§  217.  If  the  chain,  or  a  portion  of  it,  is  placed  in  advance  of  a  stream, 
ravine,  wide  ditch,  or  other  obstacle,  the  commander  of  the  picket  must 
see  that  the  passages  across  are  in  good  condition,  so  that  in  case  of 
attack  the  vedettes  can  easily  rally  on  the  picket,  and  the  latter  have  free 
communication  with  its  vedettes. 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  439 

§  218.  It  is  also  absolutely  necessary  that  the  commander  of  the  picket 
should  see  that  no  pair  of  vedettes  is  entirely  composed  of  men  ignorant 
of  the  duty,  but  that  as  far  as  possible  one  of  them  should  be  an  expe- 
rienced and  reliable  soldier,  to  be  designated  as  chief  vedette;  he  should 
also  watch  that  no  near-sighted  person  is  placed  on  the  chain  during  the 
day,  nor  any  one  dull  of  hearing  in  the  night. 

§  219.  Upon  posting  the  chain  of  vedettes,  it  becomes  evident  whether 
the  picket  can  furnish  a  sufficient  number  of  men  to  keep  one-third  on 
duty  J  if  there  is  a  deficiency  in  the  chain,  the  requisite  number  of  men 
are  taken  from  the  picket,  which  is  reinforced  from  the  main  guard.  If 
there  are  more  men  than  necessary,  the  commander  of  the  picket  dis- 
poses of  the  supernumeraries  in  accordance  with  the  orders  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  main  guard. 

§  220.  Having  posted  the  1st  relief  of  vedettes,  the  commander  returns 
to  his  picket,  and  places  it  in  the  best  position ;  that  is  to  say,  one  con- 
venient for  receiving  and  supporting  the  vedettes,  not  visible  from  the 
side  of  the  enemy,  and  which  the  latter  cannot  pass  around ;  it  is  selected 
in  preference  on  a  road  leading  towards  the  enemy,  and  especially  at  cross- 
roads. 

§  221.  At  the  picket  a  sentinel  is  posted,  mounted  or  dismounted 
according  to  the  locality,  and  so  placed  that  he  can  see  the  whole  or  the 
greater  part  of  the  chain,  and  observe  what  occurs  there.  If  this  sentinel 
is  mounted,  he  carries  his  weapons  as  directed  for  the  front  vedette  in 
§194. 

§  222.  After  this,  the  commander  orders  the  men  to  dismount;  during 
the  day,  one-half  of  the  men  at  a  time  may  be  allowed  to  unbit  and  feed 
their  horses.  In  the  night,  all  the  hoi-ses  ought  to  be  bitted,  and  one- 
half  the  men  in  perfect  readiness  to  mount.  One-half  of  the  men  may 
be  allowed  to  sleep  in  the  daytime.  Under  certain  circumstances  it  may 
be  necessary  to  keep  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  picket  mounted  during 
the  night. 

§  223.  Having  arranged  the  vedettes  and  picket,  the  commander  reports 
his  dispositions,  as  well  as  every  thing  he  has  observed,  to  the  commander 
of  the  main  guard,  unless  the  latter  was  present  at  the  time. 

§  224.  All  reports  concerning  the  outposts  are  made  either  verbally, 
through  a  non-commissioned  officer,  or  in  pencil,  with  the  most  concise 
expressions,  and  not  observing  the  ordinary  forms.  Here  the  main  point 
is,  that  the  report  is  well  founded  and  clearly  expressed.  The  report 
should  be  numbered,  state  what  party  it  refers  to,  and  the  date  and  hour 
when  sent. 

§  225.  For  patrols  and  orderlies,  6  men  are  detailed  from  the  picket, 
independently  of  those  who  supply  the  vedettes ;  two  of  these,  besides 


440  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

any  already  sent  out,  should  always  be  in  readiness  to  start  in  an  instant ; 
the  others  may  rest,  and  in  the  day  unbit  their  horses. 

§  226.  The  pickets  should  always  be  vigilant,  careful,  quiet,  and  ready 
to  move.  The  arms  ought  to  be  loaded,  the  men  fully  accoutred,  all  the 
horses  saddled,  and  the  whole  picket  in  an  effective  condition  -,  the  horses 
are  sent  to  water  in  parties  of  two  or  three  at  a  time,  under  charge  of  a 
non-commissioned  officer,  and  take  every  thing  with  them.  The  horses 
should  not  be  hobbled  or  picketed.  The  use  of  fire  is  forbidden,  without 
special  permission.  The  men  change  their  dress,  from  the  uniform  to  the 
overcoat,  and  the  reverse,  one  at  a  time.  Under  peculiar  circumstances, 
in  the  night,  one-half  the  men  (by  turns)  may  be  allowed  to  take  off  their 
shakos  and  sleep,  but  the  rest  must  be  on  the  alert,  or  stand  to  horse. 

§  227.  When  a  relief  is  sent  out,  which  habitually  is  done  every  two 
hours,  but  oftener  in  bad  weather,  severe  cold,  or  after  great  fatigue,  the 
whole  picket  mounts,  and  so  remains  until  the  return  of  the  relief. 

§  228.  It  being  easy  for  the  enemy  to  approach  the  chain  during  the 
night,  in  order  to  make  a  sudden  attack  at  daybreak,  the  whole  picket 
should  be  mounted  some  time  before  dawn. 

§  229.  If  it  appears  to  be  necessary  to  draw  in  the  vedettes  upon  the 
picket,  or  to  close  in  the  vedettes  on  each  other  for  the  night,  then,  by 
the  special  order  of  the  commander  of  the  outposts,  the  chain  removes 
to  its  new  position  upon  the  approach  of  twilight.  The  decrease  of  the 
intervals  between  the  pairs  of  vedettes  is  regulated  by  the  darkness  of  the 
night  and  the  weather;  in  a  dark  night,  with  heavy  rain,  a  thick  fog,  or, 
most  especially,  with  a  wind  blowing  towards  the  enemy,  this  interval  is 
made  very  small.  The  extra  men  needed  in  these  cases  are  supplied  by 
the  main  guards  or  the  reserve  of  the  outposts.  At  daybreak,  the  chain 
again  advances  to  the  position  designated  for  it  during  the  day. 

§  230.  If  the  ground  occupied  by  the  vedettes  during  the  day  is  so 
advantageous  that  it  would  be  injurious  to  throw  them  back  at  night, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  decrease  their  distance  from  the  picket,  then  the 
chain  is  left  where  it  stands,  the  intervals  between  the  vedettes  are  di- 
minished, and  the  picket  moved  up  closer  to  the  chain. 

§  231.  Besides  the  original  posting  of  the  chain,  the  commander  of  the 
picket  should  also  superintend  its  removal  to  the  night  position ;  and  if 
the  vedettes  were  originally  posted  at  night,  he  should  be  present  when 
they  take  up  their  new  position  for  the  day,  also  when  his  picket  is  re- 
lieved by  other  troops.  The  other  reliefs  of  the  vedettes  not  only 
may,  but  ought  to  be  made  by  non-commissioned  officers,  so  as  not  to 
take  the  commander  from  his  picket,  where  his  presence  may  be  very 
necessary. 

§  232.  All  the  men  of  a  relief,  while  marching,  carry  their  weapons  ai 
prescribed  for  the  front  vedette  in  §  194,  and  the  act  of  relieving  is  per- 


OF   CAVALIIY   IN   TIME   OF   WAR.  4n 

formed  as  in  time  of  peace;  the  instructions  are  given  quietly,  and  all 
orders  in  a  low  tone. 

§  233.  The  returning  relief  is  received  at  the  picket  as  in  time  of 
peace,  with  the  difference  that  the  whole  picket  is  mounted. 

§  234.  When  the  rounds  arrive  at  a  picket,  they  are  received  as  di- 
rected below  in  Chapter  III.,  on  vmting  the  outposts;  in  this  case,  all 
orders  are  given  in  a  low  tone,  and  the  necessary  quietness  is  preserved. 

§  235.  At  the  proper  hours,  the  commander  of  the  picket  will  send 
out  patrols  to  verify  the  exactness  of  the  vedettes,  (see  Chapter  III.  j)  he 
should  also  despatch  the  reliefs  punctually,  and  report  to  the  commander 
of  the  main  guard  after  every  relief,  although  there  may  be  nothing  new. 

§  236.  When  a  report  comes  in  from  the  chain  of  the  arrival  of  men 
without  the  countersign,  or  in  the  night  of  those  who  (see  §  203)  are  not 
entitled  to  pass  with  it,  the  commander  of  the  picket  at  once  sends  a  non- 
commissioned ofl&cer  and  two  men  to  bring  them  in  Upon  their  arrival, 
he  demands  the  parole,  watchword,  and  countersign;  and  if  all  their 
replies  are  correct,  he  permits  them  to  .pass  freely;  but  if  they  do  not 
know  the  parole,  he  sends  them,  under  guard,  to  the  commander  of  the 
main  guard. 

§  237.  If  a  flag  of  truce  or  deserters  from  the  enemy  arrive  at  the 
chain,  the  commander  of  the  picket  goes  there  himself,  taking  with  him 
a  non-commissioned  officer  and  some  privates.  When  near  the  flag  of 
truce,  he  demands  who  he  is,  by  whom  and  to  whom  sent ;  and  then, 
having  blindfolded  him,  directs  the  non-commissioned  officer  and  two 
privates  to  conduct  him  to  the  commander  of  the  main  guard.  If  de- 
serters have  arrived,  he  directs  his  escort  to  take  their  arms,  and  bring 
them  within  the  chain ;  he  then  calls  up  one  of  the  deserters  and  ques- 
tions him,  and  having  ordered  them  all  to  be  searched,  lest  they  carry 
concealed  weapons,  he  sends  them  to  the  commander  of  the  main  guard, 
with  an  escort  in  proportion  to  their  number. 

§  238.  If  a  report  arrives  from  the  chain  of  any  thing  important  in 
the  direction  of  the  enemy,  or  of  his  appearance,  the  commander  of  the 
picket  verifies  it  in  person,  at  once  sends  a  report  to  the  commander  of 
the  main  guard,  and  informs  the  neighboring  pickets;  in  the  mean  time 
the  picket  mounts. 

§  239.  If  it  appears  that  the  enemy,  in  small  force,  merely  alarms  the 
outposts,  the  vedettes  commence  firing,  the  pickets  advance,  and  either 
endeavor  to  overthrow  the  enemy's  detachment  or  to  keep  him  in  check 
until  the  arrival  of  the  main  guard  or  the  reserve  of  the  outposts. 

§  240.  If  it  appears  that  the  enemy  is  not  in  superior  force,  then  the 
pickets  should  attack  and  drive  him  ofi";  afterwards  they  resume  their 
original  positions. 

§  241.  If  it  is  ascertained  that  the  enemy  attacks  vigorously  in  force, 


442  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

and  has  already  approached  so  near  the  chain  that  the  vedettes  are  in 
danger  of  being  cut  off,  the  commander  of  the  picket  gives  them  the  sig- 
nal to  retreat,  and,  using  them  as  a  chain  of  skirmishers,  he  begins,  if  it 
is  necessary,  his  retreat  upon  the  main  guard,  again  reporting  the  state  of 
affairs  to  the  commander  of  the  latter,  and  the  nearest  pickets. 

§  242.  While  retreating,  he  should  endeavor  to  delay  the  enemy  as 
long  as  possible,  also  to  observe,  as  well  as  he  can,  his  force,  kind  of  troops, 
and  direction,  taking  care,  however,  not  to  be  cut  off, 

§  243.  In  the  night  the  enemy  does  not  see  the  strength  of  the  picket, 
and  moves  over  ground  with  which  he  is  unacquainted,  while  the  picket 
knows  the  ground.  Therefore,  it  is  sometimes  advantageous  for  cavalry 
pickets,  in  the  night,  to  commence  their  retreat  by  attacking :  if  the 
attack  fails,  nothing  is  lost,  and  the  picket  falls  back  upon  the  main  guard ; 
if  it  succeeds,  even  if  it  is  impossible  to  drive  the  enemy  off,  his  pursuit 
is  at  least  delayed,  and  his  force  more  closely  examined. 

§  244.  Upon  hearing  firing  at  the  chain,  the  commander  of  the  picket 
at  once  sends  to  learn  the  cause,  and  causes  the  picket  to  mount :  if  the 
enemy  really  attacks,  the  commander  acts  as  directed  above ;  but  if  the 
firing  was  only  upon  individuals,  he  at  once  sends  word  to  the  main  guard 
and  neighboring  pickets,  to  prevent  unnecessary  alarm. 

§  245.  The  other  pickets  mount  at  once  upon  hearing  firing  at  any 
part  of  the  chain ;  and  if  the  picket  attacked  retreats,  they  regulate  their 
movements  on  it,  so  as  to  keep  up  the  communication  and  not  be  cut  off, 
and  at  once  inform  the  next  picket  on  the  opposite  side. 

§  246.  After  every  skirmish  the  commanders  of  the  pickets  make  an 
inspection  to  ascertain  whether  any  of  their  men  are  captured  or  missing; 
if  there  are  any  such  cases,  they  at  once  inform  the  commander  of  the 
main  guard.  Until  the  countersign  is  changed,  the  commanders  of  the 
pickets  forbid  the  vedettes  to  allow  any  one  to  cross  the  chain,  even  with 
the  old  countersign ;  this  they  do  in  all  cases  when  a  man  is  missing  from 
the  vedettes  or  pickets,  even  if  there  has  been  no  skirmish. 

Article  4. 
Duties  of  the  commander  of  the  main  guard. 

§  247.  The  main  guard  is  commanded  by  a  field  ofl&cer  or  captain; 
there  must  always  be  a  trumpeter  with  him. 

§  248.  He  communicates  to  the  commanders  of  the  pickets  the  parole, 
watchword,  and  countersign. 

§  249.  Having  reached  the  position  designated  for  the  main  guard,  its 
commander  details  and  sends  forward  the  platoons  that  are  to  supply  the 
pickets  and  vedettes.  Having  turned  over  the  command  of  the  main 
guard  to  the  next  in  rank  of  those  remaining  with  it,  he  goes  himself 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  443 

to  the  advanced  chain,  to  superintend  the  posting  of  the  pickets  and 
vedettes;  he  gives  all  the  parties  their  instructions,  how  they  are  to  act 
upon  the  appearance  of  the  enemy,  and  how  in  case  of  retreat;  he  care- 
fully examines  the  ground.  The  main  guard  remains  mounted  until  the 
vedettes  and  pickets  are  posted. 

§  250.  If  it  is  impossible  for  the  commander  of  the  main  guard  to  be 
present  at  the  original  posting  of  the  pickets  and  vedettes,  he  should  at 
least  ride  over  all  the  ground  committed  to  his  charge. 

§  251.  If  in  any  of  the  pickets  one  relief  is  short  of  men,  the  com- 
mander of  the  main  guard  supplies. the  deficiency  from  it;  if  a  picket  has 
more  men  than  enough,  he  either  directs  the  superfluous  men  to  join  the 
main  guard,  or  sends  them  to  reinforce  another  picket  which  has  not  men 
enough,  or,  finally,  directs  the  picket  which  has  the  most  men  to  occupy 
a  greater  portion  of  the  chain  than  its  neighbors. 

Remark. — In  these  cases,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  the  parties  sent  to  the  outposts  must  be  units,  so  that  their  interior 
organization  may  not  be  disturbed;  especially  that  two  companies  of  the 
same  regiment  must  furnish  a  main  guard  and  the  corresponding  pickets 
and  vedettes.  From  this  there  will  result  greater  unity  in  the  conduct 
of  the  outposts,  and  each  officer,  being  with  his  own  men,  can  assign  them 
to  the  particular  duty  best  suited  to  the  character  and  capacity  of  each. 

§  252.  In  the  disposition  of  the  vedettes  and  pickets,  the  commander 
of  the  main  guard  should  look  to  the  connection  of  the  whole  chain  and 
all  the  pickets  under  his  charge,  and  particularly  to  the  facility  of  com- 
munication with  the  neighboring  main  guards. 

§  253.  Having  returned  to  the  main  guard,  its  commander  arranges  it 
as  follows:  the  guard  dismounts;  during  the  day  one-half,  by  turns,  unbit 
and  feed  their  horses,  holding  them  by  the  reins;  the  rest  of  the  men 
remain  with  their  horses,  in  perfect  readiness,  some  20  to  50  paces  in 
front  of  those  who  are  feeding.  During  the  night  all  the  horses  must  be 
bitted,  and  one-half  the  men  perfectly  ready  to  mount. 

§  254.  Having  arranged  the  main  guard,  its  commander  reports  to  the 
commander  of  the  outposts  his-  arrangements,  and  every  thing  of  im- 
portance that  he  has  observed. 

Remark. — Sketching  the  ground  occupied  by  the  outposts  is  a  part 
of  the  duty  of  the  stafi*  officers;  but  if  there  are  none  present,  the  com- 
mander of  the  main  guard  should  annex  to  his  report  a  rough  pencil 
sketch  of  the  ground,  for  the  better  elucidation  of  his  arrangements. 

§  255.  A  sentinel  is  placed  at  the  main  guard,  as  at  the  picket,  (§  221 ;) 
he  challenges  all  who  approach  in  the  same  manner  as  the  vedettes.  All 
other  precautions  are  observed  by  the  main  guard  as  by  the  pickets. (§  226.) 

§  256.  If  it  is  necessary  to  cook  in  a  covered  place,  and  the  commander 
of  the  outposts  has  given  permission  to  use  a  fire,  the  men  do  not  leave 


444  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

their  position  to  eat,  but  the  food  is  brought  to  them,  and  they  eat,  a  few 
at  a  time. 

§  257.  The  commander  of  the  main  guard  receives  the  rounds  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  commander  of  a  picket  does.  (§  234.) 

§  258.  If  men  without  the  countersign,  flags  of  truce,  or  deserters 
from  the  enemy,  are  sent  in  from  the  pickets,  the  commander  of  the  main 
guard  interrogates  them,  and  then  sends  them,  under  guard,  to  the 
reserve,  if  there  is  any,  or  direct  to  the  commander  of  the  outposts. 

§  259.  Upon  receiving  from  the  pickets  news  of  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  or  on  hearing  firing  at  the  chain,  the  commander  of  the  main 
guard  at  once  sends  an  officer,  or  a  sergeant,  with  two  men,  to  ascertain 
what  is  taking  place,  and  reports  to  the  commander  of  the  outposts.  That 
part  of  the  main  guard  whose  horses  are  bitted  mount  and  ride  to  the 
front  to  receive  or  support  the  retreating  pickets  in  case  of  necessity;  in 
the  mean  time  the  other  portion  prepare,  and,  if  the  firing  continues,  join 
the  advanced  party. 

§  260.  If  the  commander  of  the  main  guard  is  satisfied  that  the  enemy 
attacks  really  and  decidedly,  he  reports  again  to  the  commander  of  the 
outposts,  and  acts  according  to  the  preceding  instructions;  that  is,  he 
either  endeavors  to  resist  the  enemy  and  hold  his  ground,  or  keeps  up  the 
firing  and  retards  his  advance,  or  simply  falls  back  upon  the  reserves. 

§  261.  In  the  night,  the  main  guard  may,  as  in  the  case  of  a  picket, 
(§  243,)  try  an  immediate  attack;  but  this  should  be  made  by  only  a  part 
of  the  main  guard,  holding  the  rest  in  reserve  to  support  the  attacking 
party. 

§  262.  The  commander  of  each  main  guard  should  constantly  keep 
up  his  connection  with  his  pickets  and  the  nearest  main  guards  by  patrols; 
if  the  enemy  advance,  he  must  regulate  his  movements  in  conformity 
with  those  of  the  other  main  guards,  so  that,  being  as  nearly  as  possible 
on  the  same  line,  they  may  be  in  a  condition  to  render  mutual  assistance. 

§  263.  The  commander  of  a  main  guard  should  be  very  careful  as  to 
his  reports;  upon  receiving  any  news  about  the  enemy  from  the  pickets, 
he  should  endeavor  to  verify  it  in  person;  if  that  is  impracticable,  it  is 
best  to  send  to  the  commander  of  the  outposts  the  original  report  received 
from  the  picket. 

§  264.  If  the  same  two  companies  remain  upon  outpost  duty  for  several 
days,  the  pickets  are  usually  relieved  every  24  hours.  It  is  best  to  relieve 
them  in  the  morning,  that  the  new  pickets  may  be  able  to  see  the  country. 
If  the  two  companies  are  detailed  for  24  hours  only,  the  pickets  may  be 
relieved  during  the  day,  especially  if  they  have  been  alarmed  and  have 
not  had  time  to  unbit  their  horses.  Such  reliefs  should  be  effected  one 
or  two  hours  before  sunset,  to  give  the  new  reliefs  time  enough  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  ground. 


OF    CAVALORY   IN    TIME    OF  WAR.  445 


Article  5. 
The  reserves  of  the  ovtposts. 
§  265.  These  may  be  employed  with  two  objects: 

1.  To  facilitate  the  retreat  of  the  outposts,  if  they  are  very  distant 
from  the  camp;  or, 

2.  To  retard  the  advance  of  the  enemy  if  the  outposts  are  close  in. 

In  the  first  case,  the  reserve  need  not  be  very  strong;  if  the  ground 
permits  the  action  of  cavalry,  it  is  composed  of  that  arm  in  preference; 
from  two  to  four  companies  or  more  may  be  detailed  for  the  service.  In 
the  second  case,  the  composition  of  the  reserve  depends  upon  the  ground 
and  the  length  of  time  it  is  desired  to  detain  the  enemy;  in  localities  at 
all  favorable  to  infantry,  the  reserve  is  composed  of  that  arm,  and  it  is 
of  cavalry  only  on  perfectly  open  plains;  in  this  last  case,  the  deficiency 
in  defensive  strength  is  supplied  by  the  addition  of  horse  artillery. 

§  266.  In  general  a  reserve  of  the  outposts  is  detailed  only  for  the  pro- 
tection of  a  considerable  body  of  troops,  as,  for  instance,  3  or  4  divisions. 
For  detachments  consisting  only  of  a  division  or  so,  there  is  no  reserve 
of  the  outposts;  the  detachment  itself  constitutes  the  reserve. 

§  267.  The  bivouac  of  the  reserve  of  the  outposts  is  selected  as  near 
as  possible  to  water,  wood,  straw,  forage,  &c.;  but  in  no  case  should  any 
military  advantages  be  lost  sight  of,  they  being  much  more  important  in 
such  a  case  than  any  considerations  of  mere  convenience. 

§  268.  An  inlying  picket,  of  from  i  to  i  of  the  entire  reserve,  is  de- 
tailed, which  should  be  perfectly  ready  to  mount,  to  support  the  outposts 
if  necessary.  The  inlying  picket  is  placed  a  little  in  advance  of  the  rest, 
and  acts  as  the  guard  of  the  artillery,  if  there  is  any;  its  men  should  wear 
their  accoutrements,  and  have  their  horses  constantly  saddled  and  bitted. 

§  269.  The  rest  of  the  horses  are  not  unsaddled,  but  stand  at  the  picket- 
ropes,  or  are  hobbled,  except  the  horses  of  the  guns,  which  are  fed  in 
harness,  and  are  unhitched  only  to  go  to  water,  and  that  by  turns;  the 
caisson-horses  may  be  unhitched. 

§  270.  The  reserve  always  bivouacs  in  order  of  battle, — that  is,  with  the 
companies  in  line;  the  guns  ought  to  be  in  position,  in  full  readiness  for 
action,  a  little  in  advance.  If  the  reserve  is  partly  composed  of  infantry, 
the  cavalry  is  so  placed  that  the  party  standing  to  horse  may  be  covered 
by  the  infantry. 

§  271.  The  arms  should  be  loaded.  The  men  change  their  dress,  and 
unsaddle  to  examine  their  horses'  backs,  a  few  at  a  time;  in  a  company 
by  section,  in  a  regiment  by  companies. 

The  men  who  are  reposing  may  take  off  their  shakos,  but  not  their 
accoutrements. 


446  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

§  272.  The  use  of  fire  is  allowed,  unless  peculiar  circumstances  render 
it  improper. 

§  273.  The  reserve  secures  itself  by  camp  and  quarter  guards,  posted 
as  in  time  of  peace.  The  duty  in  the  reserve  is  performed  as  in  ordinary 
bivouacs;  guards  and  sentinels  present  arms  as  usual,  but  no  signals  by 
drum  or  trumpet  are  allowed. 

§  274.  When  the  outposts  take  up  their  positions,  if  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  reinforce  any  of  the  main  guards,  or  to  establish  new  pickets, 
it  is  done  from  the  reserve. 

§  275.  The  commander  of  the  outposts  is  habitually  with  the  reserve; 
therefore,  all  reports  from  the  main  guards  and  independent  pickets  are 
sent  thither,  that  its  movements  may  be  regulated  in  conformity  with  the 
reports  received. 

§  276.  When  the  commander  of  the  reserve  receives  a  report  of  the 
approach  of  the  enemy,  he  acts  according  to  circumstances;  that  is,  he 
either  sends  a  reinforcement  to  the  pickets,  or  advances  to  support  them 
with  the  whole  reserve,  or  joining  them  himself  does  every  thing  that 
is  necessary  or  possible.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  reserve  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  falling  suddenly  in  force  upon  the  main  body,  and  to  use 
every  exertion  to  retard  his  advance,  in  order  to  aflPord  the  main  body 
time  to  prepare  to  receive  him,  and  take  the  measures  necessary  under 
the  circumstances.  The  more  vigorously  the  enemy  attacks,  the  more 
stubbornly  must  the  reserve  resist  him, 

§  277.  The  troops  composing  the  reserve  may  relieve  the  main  guards 
and  independent  pickets;  this  relief  is  efiected  once  or  twice  in  24  hours. 
The  reserve  itself  is  relieved  by  the  special  order  of  the  commander  of 
the  main  body. 

Article  6. 

Independent  pickets. 

§  278.  If  there  is  near  the  advanced  chain  any  point  the  occupation 
of  which  is  necessary  or  very  advantageous, — for  example,  if  it  will 
strengthen  a  flank  of  the  chain  not  sufficiently  secured  by  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  if  it  commands  an  extensive  view,  or  if  the  enemy  must 
necessarily  pass  over  it,  and  its  distance  is  such  that  the  chain  cannot 
be  extended  to  it  without  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of  men, — 
then  this  point  is  occupied  by  a  special  detachment,  called  an  independent 
picket. 

§  279.  They  are  sent  out  from  the  nearest  main  guard,  or  from  the 
reserve  of  the  outposts,  and  are  under  the  orders  of  the  commander  of 
the  outposts.  They  are  posted  as  the  ordinary  pickets,  with  the  difi'erence 
that  their  vedettes  are  solely  for  their  own  security,  and  are  so  placed  as 
to  prevent  the  enemy  from  attacking  the  picket  unawares. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF   WAR.  447 

§  280.  Not  having  a  direct  connection  with  the  other  parties,  they 
must  maintain  it  by  means  of  patrols,  and  should  also  send  patrols  in 
the  direction  of  the  enemy;  therefore  the  strength  of  an  independent 
picket  will  be  determined  by  the  indispensable  number  of  vedettes  and 
patrols  to  be  furnished.  For  example,  if  it  is  necessary  to  post  two  pairs 
of  vedettes  and  one  sentinel  at  the  picket,  and  to  send  out  patrols  on  two 
roads  leading  towards  the  enemy,  and  on  one  towards  the  nearest  picket, 
then,  each  patrol  consisting  of  two  men,  there  will  be  11  men  in  each 
relief,  or  33  privates  in  the  whole  picket. 

§  281.  The  greater  the  distance  of  an  independent  picket  from  the 
other  parties  of  the  outposts,  the  stronger  should  it  be.  In  all  cases  it 
should  have  a  secure  retreat. 

§  282.  It  is  the  duty  of  independent,  as  of  ordinary,  pickets,  to  be 
always  prudent,  to  watch  the  enemy,  to  obtain  information  of  his  nearest 
parties  and  distant  movements;  but  as  they  are  more  exposed  than  the 
others  to  be  attacked  and  cut  off,  they  should  redouble  their  vigilance 
and  precautions. 

Article  7. 
The  general  duties  of  all  parts  of  the  outposts. 

§  283.  Precaution  and  indefatigable  vigilance  are  the  first  duties  of  all 
parts  of  the  outposts.  Independently  of  the  security  of  the  outposts 
themselves,  this  duty  assumes  a  peculiar  importance  from  the  fact  that 
upon  its  fulfilment  depend  the  tranquillity,  safety,  and  sometimes  the 
existence  of  the  troops  guarded. 

§  284.  If  the  positions  of  the  outposts  are  not  already  occupied  by  our 
own  troops,  the  parties  detailed  for  outpost  duty  will  march  to  their  posts 
with  all  the  usual  military  precautions ;  that  is,  with  advanced,  flank,  and 
rear  patrols.  Besides  this,  it  is  well,  upon  approaching  the  ground,  to 
send  out  small  patrols  in  all  directions,  to  examine  the  country  and  ascer- 
tain whether  the  enemy  is  concealed  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  safer  not  to 
commence  posting  the  chain  until  the  return  of  the  patrols;  at  all  events, 
not  until  they  have  occupied  points  whence  they  can  see  for  a  long  dis- 
tance in  all  directions. 

§  285.  At  the  outposts  it  is  necessary  to  preserve  quietness,  and  to 
avoid  every  thing  which  might  discover  them  to  the  enemy.  For  this 
reason  the  use  of  trumpet  signals  is  forbidden,  except  in  case  of  a  skir- 
mish ;  directions,  orders,  and  challenges  are  given  in  a  low  tone ;  the  use 
of  fire  is  prohibited,  except  at  the  reserve,  and  is  permitted  there  only 
when  there  is  no  particular  reason  for  forbidding  it. 

§  286.  Every  commander  despatching  a  party  for  outpost  duty  under 
his  orders  must  give  its  chief  detailed  instructions ;  he  must  satisfy  him- 
self that  the  instructions  are   fully  understood,  and  must   exercise  the 

27 


448  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

greatest  personal  vigilance  in  watching  over  their  execution  by  his  sub- 
ordinates. 

§  287.  If  it  is  impossible  to  carry  out  the  instructions  fully,  the  sub- 
ordinate must  at  once  report  to  his  superior,  explaining  the  cause  of  the 
impossibility. 

§  288.  The  gradation  of  subordination  is  as  follows :  the  vedettes  are 
immediately  subordinate  to  the  pickets  from  which  they  are  detached ; 
the  pickets  to  their  main  guards,  the  main  guards  and  independent  pickets 
to  the  reserve  of  the  outposts.  The  commander  of  the  reserve  is  imme- 
diately subordinate  to  the  commander  of  the  outposts ;  the  latter  to  the 
commander  of  the  advanced  guard. 

§  289.  The  commander  of  every  post  should  at  once  report  to  his 
immediate  superior,  and,  if  necessary,  to  the  commanders  of  the  nearest 
parties,  every  thing  he  has  observed  in  person,  or  learned  through  his 
subordinates,  especially  what  refers  to  the  movements  of  the  enemy. 

§  290.  The  subordinate  should  always  endeavor  to  verify  the  information 
in  person,  and  then  make  his  report;  always  remembering  that  an  un- 
founded report  may  produce  serious  consequences  to  the  whole  army. 

§  291.  If  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  verify  the  information  in  person, 
he  should  forward  to  his  superior  the  original  report  received. 

§  292.  Keports  should  be  written  clearly  and  with  precision,  especially 
with  regard  to  the  force  of  the  enemy,  noting  not  only  his  numbers,  but 
of  what  arms,  and  the  direction  in  which  he  marches.  In  reports  positive 
fa<Jts  should  be  distinguished  from  probabilities, — noting  the  degree  of 
confidence  to  be  reposed  in  the  latter. 

§  293.  If  it  is  unnecessary  to  forward  the  original  report  received,  it 
is  preserved  until,  by  the  progress  of  events,  it  has  lost  all  importance 
and  significance. 

§  294.  All  reports  to  the  commanders  of  main  guards  are  of  especial 
importance,  and  those  to  the  commander  of  the  outposts  still  more  so. 
Every  exaggerated  or  ill-founded  report  renders  it  necessary  to  turn  out 
and  fatigue  the  troops  uselessly;  on  the  contrary,  contempt  for  the 
enemy,  and  tardiness  in  reporting,  may  not  only  compromise  the  one 
making  the  report,  but  even  endanger  the  security  of  the  army  and  place 
it  in  a  precarious  situation. 

§  295.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  party  of  the  outposts  to  preserve  its 
connection  and  communication  with  the  nearest  corresponding  parties, 
with  those  subordinate  to  it,  and  with  that  to  which  it  is  immediately 
subordinate. 

§  296.  The  commander  of  every  post  should  carefully  examine,  in  per- 
son, the  ground  in  his  vicinity,  not  only  in  reference  to  his  relations  with 
the  nearest  posts,  but  in  regard  to  his  movements  if  attacked.  He  must 
also  find  suitable  watering-places. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF   WAR.  449 

§  297.  In  case  of  an  attack  it  is  the  duty  of  every  party  not  only  to 
reinforce  and  support  the  parties  immediately  subordinate  to  it,  but  also 
to  assist  the  neighboring  parties  whenever  it  is  necessary  and  possible. 
If  a  retreat  is  ordered,  or  forced  upon  them,  each  party  rallies  on  that  to 
which  it  is  subordinate. 

§  298.  In  conformity  with  what  has  been  said  before,  if  firing  at  the 
chain  is  heard,  the  portions  of  the  pickets  and  main  guards  ordered  to  be 
in  constant  readiness  at  once  move  forward,  even  if  they  have  received  no 
reports  as  to  the  advance  of  the  enemy.  In  such  cases,  the  reserve, 
although  fully  ready  to  meet  the  enemy,  makes  no  movement,  without 
orders,  until  the  pickets  and  main  guards  are  driven  in. 

§  299.  Upon  an  attack  by  the  enemy,  the  commander  of  every  party 
should  regulate  his  movements  in  accordance  with  those  of  the  nearest 
parties,  so  that  he  may  not  expose  them  to  be  cut  off  by  a  premature 
retreat  on  his  part,  or  expose  himself  either  by  too  tardy  a  retreat,  or  by 
moving  to  the  front  with  unnecessary  rapidity. 

§  300.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  parties  of  the  outposts  and  of  all  vedettes  to 
hold  their  positions  as  long  as  possible.  In  the  event  of  an  attack  they 
do  not  retreat  without  orders  or  pressing  necessity;  because,  although 
there  may  be  no  difl&culty  in  the  retreat,  and  although  the  ground  aban- 
doned may  easily  be  reoccupied,  yet  the  enemy  gains  something  of  which 
we  cannot  deprive  him, — that  is,  a  knowledge  of  the  ground,  which  may 
have  been  the  only  object  of  his  attack. 

§301.  If  any  party  is  ordered  to  defend  itself  to  the  utmost,  then, 
although  the  enemy  is  in  superior  force,  they  resist  him  on  the  spot,  and, 
if  necessary,  unhesitatingly  sacrifice  themselves  to  the  last  man. 

§  302.  The  commanders  of  all  the  posts  should  see  that  their  subordi- 
nates have  betimes  the  parole,  icatchword,  and  countersign. 

§  303.  The  commanders  of  pickets  allow  all  persons  who  know  the  parole, 
watchword,  and  countersign  to  cross  the  chain  in  any  direction,  both  by 
day  and  night,  without  obstacle.  Therefore,  in  time  of  war,  the  parole  is  not 
given  to  the  men,  but  only  to  those  persons  whose  duty  renders  it  necessary 
for  them  to  possess  it,  and  they  preserve  it  with  the  utmost  secrecy. 

§  304.  On  this  principle  the  parole  is  given  gnly  to  the  commanders  of 
the  main  guards  and  pickets,  and  to  those  persons  who  are  intrusted  by 
the  proper  authorities  with  missions  which  render  it  necessary  for  them 
to  cross  the  chain  without  detention. 

The  watchword  is  given  only  to  the  non-commissioned  officers  sent  out 
with  patrols  and  reliefs,  and  serves  for  mutual  challenges. 

The  countersign  is  given  to  all  on  duty  at  the  outposts,  and  serves  to 
challenge  all  who  approach  the  chain. 

§  305.  Upon  the  arrival  at  any  post  of  people  who,  by  the  regulations, 
or  by  special  orders,  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  pass,  the  commander  of  that 


450  REGULATIONS    FOR   FIELD    SERVICE 

post  sends  them  to  his  immediate  chief.  Upon  the  arrival  of  flags  of  truce 
he  watches  that  they  do  not  enter  into  conversation  with  any  but  the 
authorized  persons. 

§  306.  At  the  outposts  arms  are  not  presented,  nor  the  men  mounted, 
for  any  of  the  commanders.  Upon  the  approach  of  a  superior  officer,  the 
party  on  duty  at  once  stand  to  horse,  the  commander  of  the  post  orders 
the  rest  to  do  the  same,  and  places  himself  in  that  position ;  if  the  superior 
stops  at  the  post,  its  commander  reports  what  he  has  observed. 

§  307.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard, 
or  of  the  main  body,  to  the  position  of  the  outposts,  he  is  met  and  accom- 
panied only  by  the  commander  of  the  outposts;  the  commander  of  each 
post  remains  with  it. 

§  308.  When  a  post  is  relieved,  the  old  commander  will  explain  to  the 
new  one  every  thing  which  is,  in  his  opinion,  of  importance,  and  every 
thing  that  he  has  observed  in  reference  to  the  enemy  and  the  locality. 

§  309.  If  the  commander  of  a  party,  newly  placed  on  duty  at  the  out- 
posts, finds  any  thing  wrong  in  the  original  arrangement  of  the  vedettes, 
pickets,  or  main  guards,  he  must  report  it,  through  his  immediate  chief, 
to  the  commander  of  the  outposts,  and  ask  his  permission  to  rectify  the 
dispositions ;  until  he  receives  this  permission,  he  preserves  the  former 
arrangement. 

§  310.  The  commanders  of  all  posts  watch  over  the  punctual  despatch 
of  the  reliefs  of  vedettes  and  posts  sent  out  from  their  commands.  It  is 
best  to  relieve  all  the  parties  of  the  outposts  before  dawn ;  for  the  enemy 
can  advantageously  avail  himself  of  the  darkness  to  approach  the  chain, 
in  order  to  attack  at  daybreak,  and  the  presence  of  the  reliefs  at  this  time 
doubles  the  force  of  the  outposts. 

§  311.  The  commanders  especially  see  that  the  required  rounds  and 
patrols  are  sent  at  the  proper  times,  never  sending  them  at  known  hours 
or  regular  intervals ;  for,  as  they  are  sent  to  verify  the  exactness  of  the 
posts,  it  is  best  that  they  should  be  constantly  expected. 

Article  8. 

0/ the  duties  of  the  outposts  in  covering  any  march  or  change  of  position 
of  the  troops  under  their  guard. 

§  312.  If  the  troops,  covered  by  the  outposts,  are  ordered  to  make  any 
movement,  then  to  avoid  a  change  of  troops  the  parties  who  have  formed 
the  outposts  constitute,  if  there  is  no  special  reason  to  the  contrary,  the 
advanced  guard,  if  the  march  is  to  the  front ;  the  rear  guard,  if  it  is  in 
retreat;  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  vedettes  and  pickets  to 
cover  the  retreat  of  the  rear  guard. 

§  313.  If  the  movement  is  to  be  concealed  from  the  enemy,  particular 
precautions  are  required  on  the  part  of  the  outposts. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN   TIME    OF   WAR.  451 

They  must  redouble  their  vigilance,  and  take  measures  to  insure  that 
no  one  from  the  side  of  the  enemy,  neither  patrols  nor  reconnoisj-ances, 
penetrates  our  position ;  and  they  must  manage  these  measures  of  precau- 
tion in  such  a  way  that  the  enemy  may  not  observe  what  is  going  on 
among  us,  or  that  any  thing  extraordinary  is  being  undertaken. 

§  314.  Besides  keeping  all  the  posts  perfectly  ready  for  action,  the 
means  of  effecting  this  consist  in  not  sending  more  patrols  than  usual  in 
front  of  the  chain,  but  in  sending  them  behind  it  as  secretly  and  fre- 
quently as  possible,  to  prevent  the  enemy's  patrols  from  crossing  it. 

In  addition,  if  it  is  necessary  to  place  a  party  of  troops  near  the  chain, 
under  cover,  they  should  be  in  ambuscade,  that  they  may  attack  the 
enemy  unexpectedly  if  he  endeavors  to  break  through  the  chain. 

§  315.  In  these  cases,  the  outposts  are  ordered  to  resist  the  enemy  as 
obstinately  as  possible,  not  only  to  prevent  him  from  penetrating  within 
our  lines,  but  to  hinder  him  from  seeing  any  thing.  Sometimes,  in  order 
to  distract  the  attention  of  the  enemy,  attacks  are  made  upon  his  outposts 
during  the  retreat  of  our  own  troops.  Such  attacks  promise  greater  success 
in  the  night  than  in  the  day,  because  when,  on  the  alarm,  the  supports 
of  the  enemy's  outposts  approach  the  chain,  they  may  thence  perceive 
things  that  were  imperceptible,  even  to  the  strongest  vision,  from  their 
usual  posts. 

§  316.  If  a  retreat  is  to  be  effected  secretly,  it  is  best  not  to  relieve  the 
outposts  by  fresh  troops  before  their  retreat,  because  the  sight  of  the  new 
troops  may  excite  the  attention  of  the  enemy;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the 
sight  of  old  troops  and  posts  may  tend  to  diminish  his  vigilance. 

§  317.  Secret  retreats  are  usually  made  at  night,  during  which  time  it 
is  endeavored  to  keep  up  the  bivouac-fires,  that  the  enemy  may  not 
observe  the  absence  of  the  troops. 

§  318.  To  facilitate  the  retreat  of  the  outposts  themselves,  should  they 
be  attacked  during  the  night,  certain  measures  of  precaution  are  adopted. 
The  officers  should  thoroughly  acquaint  themselves  with  the  roads  of 
retreat,  placing  several  posts  on  the  roads,  for  greater  security,  and 
especially  at  crossings  of  streams,  on  cross-roads,  and  in  places  where  the 
roads  diverge. 

§  319.  A  little  before  dawn,  all  the  main  guards  are  assembled  and 
gradually  retreat  in  the  required  direction ;  after  them  follow  the  pickets, 
and  finally,  at  dawn,  the  whole  chain  commences  its  retreat,  joining  the 
pickets  at  a  trot  or  gallop. 

§  320.  With  a  certain,  although  small,  extension  of  the  line  of  out- 
posts, it  is  impossible  for  them  all  to  retire  by  one  road  without  serious 
delay.  Therefore  there  should,  if  possible,  be  designated  for  their  retreat 
several  roads  which  unite  with  the  main  road,  even  if  at  a  great  distance ; 
if  this  is  impossible,  it  is  best  to  concentrate  them  rapidly  on  one  point,  in 


462  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

order   thus  to  form  a  detachment  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the 
attempts  of  the  enemy. 

§  321.  As  a  general  rule,  the  moment  when  troops  are  breaking  up 
their  camp  is  the  most  favorable  for  the  enemy  to  attack;  it  is,  therefore, 
best  to  execute  such  things  secretly,  although  there  may  be  no  other 
reason  than  this.  If  the  means  thus  adopted  are  successful,  the  main 
body  may  sometimes  accomplish  the  object  of  its  movement  before  the 
enemy  perceives  its  absence. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  OUTPOSTS  AT  A  DISTANCE  FROM  THE 

ENEMY. 

§  322.  If  the  enemy  is  so  far  from  us  that  he  cannot  pass  over  the  in- 
tervening space  in  a  single  march,  and  is,  therefore,  obliged  to  move  by 
the  roads,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  limit  the  operations  of  the  outposts  to 
watching  the  roads. 

§  323.  In  such  cases  it  is  only  necessary  to  send  out  independent 
cavalry  pickets  on  the  roads  leading  towards  the  enemy;  they  communi- 
cate with  each  other  by  means  of  patrols. 

§  324.  As  far  as  regards  obtaining  information  of  the  enemy,  it  is  best 
to  push  out  these  pickets  as  far  as  possible,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
more  dangerous  for  the  pickets  themselves;  therefore  they  should  not  be 
pushed  so  far  in  advance  as  to  be  in  great  danger  of  being  cut  off. 

§  325.  The  distance  to  which  they  may  be  advanced  will  be  increased 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  roads  occupied,  the  difficulty  which  the 
enemy  must  experience  in  moving  secretly  by  each  road,  the  distance  to 
which  patrols  are  sent  out  from  each  post,  and  the  distance  of  the  enemy 
from  our  position.  It  is  necessary  to  be  more  cautious,  and  to  draw  in 
the  pickets  as  the  enemy  approaches. 

§  326.  The  force  of  each  independent  picket  must  depend  upon  the 
number  of  vedettes  and  patrols  it  is  to  furnish,  and  upon  the  degree  of 
strength  it  ought  to  possess. 

§  327.  Every  such  picket  is  posted  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in 
§§  220  and  221.  The  routine  of  duty  and  the  measures  of  precaution 
are  exactly  as  in  ordinary  pickets. 

§  328.  As  a  general  rule,  they  preserve  their  mutual  communication  by 
patrols;  in  addition,  they  send  out  patrols  as  far  as  possible  towards  the 
enemy,  to  obtain  the  earliest  possible  news  of  him. 

§  329.  If  they  are  far  from  the  army,  they  must  be  supported  by  small 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF  WAR.  453 

detachments  placed  in  reserve  at  points  where  several  roads  unite,  or  at 
places  whence  it  is  easiest  to  afford  prompt  assistance  to  those  pickets 
which  may  be  expected  to  be  attacked  first. 

§  330.  Intelligent  irregular  cavalry,  mured  to  war,  may  be  employed 
advantageously  as  independent  pickets  and  patrols ;  but  the  supports  must 
always  be  of  the  regular  cavalry. 

§  331.  Sometimes,  even  when  at  a  great  distance  from  the  main  body 
of  the  enemy,  there  may  arise  the  necessity  for  the  greatest  precautions ; 
for  example,  when  the  population  is  disposed  to  insurrection,  or  when  the 
country  is  full  of  hostile  partisans. 

In  such  cases  the  precautions  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  danger. 


CHAPTER    in. 

OF  VISITING  THE  OUTPOSTS. 


§  332.  Small  parties,  consisting  of  a  non-commissioned  officer  and  two 
good  men,  are  sent  out  by  the  pickets  and  main  guards  to  ascertain 
whether  the  vedettes  observe  the  proper  vigilance  and  precaution.  These 
parties  are  called  patrols.  Patrols  also  offer  the  advantage  that  they  may 
happen  to  stumble  upon  the  enemy  stealing  across  the  chain. 

§  333.  The  non-commissioned  officer  of  the  patrol  must  have  the 
watchword  and  countersign. 

§  334.  A  patrol  sent  to  visit  the  vedettes  proceeds  as  follows :  the  non- 
commissioned officer  has  his  sabre  at  a  carry ;  the  two  men  follow  him 
with  carbines  advanced,  or  pistols  drawn  and  cocked.  They  proceed  to 
one  flank  of  the  chain  belonging  to  their  command ;  cross  to  the  outside 
of  the  chain  near  the  flank  vedettes,  and  approach  the  chain  silently  from 
the  outside  to  test  the  vigilance  of  the  vedettes.  When  the  vedette  chal- 
lenges, the  non-commissioned  officer  replies,  ^^ patrol "  and,  at  the  com- 
mand, "  Advance,  sergeant,  with  the  countersign,"  advances  to  about  10 
paces  from  the  vedette,  and  gives  the  countersign  in  a  low  voice.  The 
patrol  then  proceeds,  in  the  same  manner,  to  the  first  vedette  of  the  next 
picket,  or  main  guard,  near  which  it  recrosses  to  the  interior  of  the  chain, 
returns  to  its  party,  and  reports  whatever  has  been  observed. 

§  335.  If  the  non-commissioned  officer  finds  the  post  of  any  pair  of 
vedettes  abandoned,  he  leaves  one  of  his  own  men  there,  and  sends  in  a 
man  of  the  next  pair  to  inform  the  commander  of  the  picket. 

§  336.  The  patrol  must  carry  back  with  it  all  persons  found  detained  at 
the  chain,  and  all  met  with  without  the  countersign. 


454  REGULATIONS    FOR   FIELD    SERVICE 

§  337.  If  two  patrols  meet  at  night,  and  cannot  recognize  each  other's 
faces,  the  one  which  first  perceives  the  other  cries,  ^^  Halt  I  Who  comes 
there?"  and,  having  received  the  reply,  '^  Patrol  I"  cries,  ^^  Advance  j  ser- 
geant j  with  the  countersign  I"  the  non-commissioned  ofl&cer  of  the  second 
patrol  gives  the  countersign,  and,  in  his  turn,  then  demands  the  watch- 
word; if  the  replies  are  all  correct,  both  patrols  then  proceed  on  their 
march,  each  having  informed  the  other  of  any  thing  extraordinary 
observed  or  suspected. 

§  338.  Upon  suddenly  meeting  the  enemy,  patrols  act  as  prescribed  for 
vedettes. 

§  339.  The  number  of  patrols  sent  to  visit  the  vedettes  must  be  increased 
in  proportion  to  the  difl&culty  of  seeing  the  vedettes  from  the  pickets,  the 
darkness  of  the  night,  the  obstructions  of  the  ground,  the  thinness  of  the 
chain,  and  the  fatigue  of  the  men,  whether  arising  from  a  long  march  or 
a  combat. 

Under  these  circumstances,  patrols  are  sent  out  continually,  that  is,  on 
the  return  of  one,  another  is  at  once  sent  out. 

In  the  daytime,  in  clear  weather,  and  in  open  country,  but  few  patrols 
are  despatched,  though  the  vedettes  must  be  kept  in  constant  expectation 
of  them. 

§  340.  To  inspect  the  pickets  and  main  guards,  the  commander  of  the 
outposts  sends  out  "  roundsj^  from  time  to  time. 

§  341.  Rounds  consist  of  an  officer  with  two  privates;  all  the  main 
guards  and  pickets  should  be  informed  betiiftes  what  officers  are  ordered 
to  make  the  rounds. 

§  342.  The  officer  making  the  rounds  must  know  i\ie  parole,  watchwordj 
and  countersign. 

§  343.  In  reply  to  the  challenge  of  the  sentinel  at  the  main  guard  or 
picket,  the  officer  making  the  rounds  answers,  '•'  Rounds  !" 

To  receive  the  rounds,  that  part  of  the  main  guard  or  picket  which  is 
ordered  to  be  in  constant  readiness  mounts,  without  drawing  sabre  ;  those 
reposing  are  not  disturbed.  In  other  regards  the  rounds  are  received  as 
in  time  of  peace. 

§  344.  The  commander  of  the  party  visited  reports  to  the  rounds  the 
number  of  men  under  his  command,  the  arrangements  of  all  his  posts, 
the  number  of  men  absent  on  duty,  the  number  present,  and  every  thing 
that  has  been  observed. 

§  345.  After  this  the  officer  making  the  rounds  examines  the  command, 
satisfies  himself  that  they  are  in  the  required  state  of  preparation,  and 
verifies  the  general  number  of  men.  Then,  if  he  has  been  ordered  to 
test  whether  the  whole  command  can  be  promptly  in  the  saddle,  he  noti- 
fies the  commander  of  the  post,  who  at  once  orders  all  the  men  to  mount. 

§  346.  Every  thing  prescribed  here  should  be  done  quietly,  and  all 


OF    CAVALRY   IN  TIME   OF  WAR.  465 

orders  be  given  in  a  low  tone.  After  this  the  rounds  proceed  to  the 
next  post;  but  the  officer  may  demand  an  escort  from  the  party  just 
inspected. 

§  347.  The  rounds  are  not  limited  to  visiting  the  main  guards  and 
pickets,  but  may  be  required  to  visit  the  vedettes }  in  this  case  they  act  as 
prescribed  for  patrols  sent  for  the  same  purpose. 

§  348.  The  rounds  are  not  sent  out  at  fixed  hours;  the  hours  of  their 
visits  depend  upon  the  judgment  of  the  commander  of  the  outposts,  and 
should  be  so  regulated  that  the  parties  to  be  visited  may  not  know  when 
to  expect  them;  they  are  sent  out  most  frequently  at  night,  and  just 
before  dawn. 

§  349.  Upon  the  return  of  the  rounds  the  officer  reports  to  the  com- 
mander of  the  outposts  the  condition  in  which  he  found  affairs,  and 
every  thing  he  observed. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

OF  PATROLS. 


§  350.  The  duties  of  patrols  sent  out  hy  troops  on  the  march  were 
described  in  Part  I.,  Chapter  IL,  Article  5. 

In  this  chapter  will  be  described  the  duties  of  patrols  sent  out  hy  troops 
in  camp. 

§  351.  Besides  the  patrols  sent  out  to  visit  the  vedettes,  (§§  332  to 
339,)  patrols  are  sent  out  for  other  purposes,  namely : 

1.  To  keep  up  the  communication  between  the  different  parties  of  the 
outposts. 

2.  To  reconnoitre  the  enemy  ;  and, 

3.  To  examine  the  country. 

§  352.  When  a  patrol  is  sent  out  to  keep  up  the  communication  be- 
tween different  parties  of  the  outposts,  it  rides  to  the  post  whither  it  is  sent, 
reports  to  the  commander  whatever  it  was  directed  to  communicate,  and 
every  thing  observed  on  the  way;  having  received  his  instructions,  the 
patrol  returns  to  its  party. 

§  353.  To  insure  the  safety  and  tranquillity  of  the  troops  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  the  outposts  merely  to  watch  the  space  visible  from  the  chain, 
because  the  enemy  may  send  out  small  parties  to  make  partial  attacks,  in 
order  to  exhaust  the  troops  by  forcing  them  to  assemble  on  continual 
alarms.  To  secure  the  outposts  against  such  attacks,  as  well  as  to  discover 
the  enemy  and  examine  the  country,  patrols  are  sent  out  in  advance  of 
the  chain. 


456  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

§  354.  Such  patrols  are  divided  into  near  and  distant  patrols ;  they 
are  composed  of  light  cavalry  in  preference. 

§  355.  JV^ear  patrols  consist  of  a  non-commissioned  officer  with  two  or 
three  prompt  men,  and  are  sent  out  by  all  parties  of  the  outposts.  They 
move  on  all  the  main  roads  leading  towards  the  enemy,  and  do  not  go 
more  than  one  or  two  miles  from  the  vedettes,  so  that  they  may  give  prompt 
information  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy;  they  limit  themselves  to 
watching  him.  These  patrols  are  sent  out  the  more  frequently  in  pro- 
portion as  the  enemy  can  approach  more  secretly;  so  that  in  an  ob- 
structed country,  in  thick  fogs,  dark  nights,  and  close  to  the  enemy,  they 
are  sent  out  continually, — that  is,  one  immediately  upon  the  return  of 
another. 

§  356.  Distant  patrols  are  sent  out  to  discover  the  enemy  and  examine 
the  country  at  considerable  distances,  (from  2  to  10,  and  even  more, 
miles,)  and  are  composed  of  a  greater  number  of  men,  (of  10,  20,  30, 
and  more,)  that  they  may  sometimes  be  able  to  attack  hostile  patrols,  and 
make  prisoners.  They  are  usually  commanded  by  an  officer,  to  whom  are 
explained,  in  detail,  the  object  of  his  mission,  the  means  of  accomplishing 
it,  and  the  direction  he  is  to  take ;  he  is  also  instructed  whether  to  engage 
the  enemy's  patrols  or  to  avoid  a  combat. 

§  357.  Distant  patrols  sometimes  consist  of  a  company,  or  more,  espe- 
cially if  they  cannot  return  the  same  day.  They  are  sent  out  by  the 
advance  guard  or  main  body,  and  take  the  name  of  flt/ing  detachments. 
As  a  general  rule,  all.  distant  patrols  are  under  the  orders  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  outposts. 

§  358.  The  moment  a  patrol  passes  beyond  the  chain,  it  should  detach 
front,  flank,  and  rear  patrollers,  to  secure  itself  against  sudden  attack. 
In  figs.  4  and  5  are  given  examples  of  the  arrangements  of  patrols  of  15 
and  30  men ;  larger  patrols  are  arranged  according  to  the  same  prin- 
ciples. Smaller  patrols  are  arranged  according  to  their  strength  :  for 
example,  a  patrol  of  five  men  sends  out  one  in  front,  and  one  on  each 
side;  a  patrol  of  three  men  places  one  in  front,  the  others  move  at  a  little 
distance  apart, — one  watching  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left. 

§  359.  It  is  a  great  advantage  for  a  patrol  to  see  the  enemy  before 
being  discovered  itself;  this  renders  it  possible  to  avoid  a  stronger  force, 
and  to  apprize  the  outposts  of  its  approach,  or  to  attack,  by  surprise,  an 
equal  or  inferior  force. 

§  360.  In  order  to  secure  themselves  against  a  sudden  attack,  patrols 
should  use  all  possible  precautions,  and  observe  the  deepest  silence ;  the 
patrollers  carry  their  pieces  cocked.  In  the  night,  and  in  thick  weather, 
all  precautions  are  redoubled.  The  patrol  should  occasionally  halt  and 
listen ;  the  men  in  front  and  on  the  flanks,  dismounting  by  turns,  place 
the  ear  to  the  ground,  &c. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN   TIME    OF   WAR.  457 

§  361.  On  their  return  march  the  patrols  should  be  even  more  cau- 
tious; because  the  enemy,  having  perceived  them,  may  select  this  very 
time  for  the  attack,  on  the  supposition  that  the  outposts,  being  relieved 
from  apprehension  by  the  return  of  the  patrols,  may  somewhat  relax  their 
vigilance. 

§  362.  The  commander  of  a  patrol  should  concert  certain  signals  with 
his  jya  trailers  by  which  they  are  to  indicate  their  discoveries.  If  the 
necessary  precautions  are  observed,  it  is  impossible  for  the  enemy  to 
attack  unawares;  therefore  the  commander  of  a  patrol  is  always  held 
responsible  for  its  loss. 

§  363.  In  Part  I.,  Chapter  II.,  Article  5,  are  explained  the  precautions 
to  be  observed  by  patrols  sent  out  by  troops  on  the  march ;  these  measures 
are  equally  applicable  in  the  present  case,  and  the  following  are  prescribed 
in  addition  : 

§  364.  If  a  patrol  leaves  in  its  rear  defiles  by  which  it  is  intended  to 
return,  a  few  men  should  be  left  to  hold  them, — in  preference,  the  men 
having  the  worst  horses.  If  these  men  are  driven  off  by  a  superior  force, 
they  can,  by  means  of  preconcerted  signals,  (such  as  rockets,  lighted 
straw  on  poles,  &c.,)  inform  the  patrol  of  the  fact,  so  that  it  may  seek 
another  line  of  retreat. 

§  365.  As  these  patrols  are  usually  intended  merely  to  discover  the 
enemy  and  examine  the  country,  they  should  generally  avoid  a  combat 
unless  success  seems  certain. 

§  366.  That  he  may  be  able  to  avoid  the  enemy  when  still  unperceived 
by  him,  the  commander  of  a  patrol  pays  special  attention  to  the  ground, 
so  that  in  case  of  necessity  he  may  avail  himself  of  its  accidents  for  con- 
cealment. 

§  367.  Upon  meeting  the  enemy  in  superior  force,  the  patrol  should  at 
once  commence  its  retreat  if  already  discovered. 

§  368.  If  a  patrol  suddenly  stumbles  upon  the  enemy  in  the  night,  it 
is  best  to  attack  at  once ;  in  the  night  the  advantage  is  always  on  the  side 
of  those  who  attack  first,  for  to  the  habitual  disorder  following  a  sudden 
attack  is  added  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  strength  of  the  attacking  party. 
In  such  cases,  decision  and  the  advantage  of  the  initiative  insure  success. 
When  the  enemy  is-  beaten  off  and  retreats,  he  ought  not  to  be  pursued 
far,  lest  we  fall  into  an  ambuscade ;  and  it  is  best,  not  being  allured  by 
success,  to  avail  ourselves  of  it,  and  retreat  in  good  order. 

§  369.  The  guides  of  patrols  ought  to  be  chosen  for  their  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  fidelity  j  but  their  suggestions  should  not 
be  blindly  followed  :  to  verify  them,  constant  inquiries  should  be  made 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  of  all  persons  met  on  the  road ;  for  greater  secu- 
rity, the  guides  should  be  detained  until  the  patrol  is  in  perfect  safety. 

§  370.  To  rest  and  feed  the  horses,  the  patrol  avails  itself  of  some 


458  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

covered  place  oflf  the  road,  as  a  forest,  ravine,  &c.  During  the  halt,  the 
patrol  secures  itself  by  means  of  vedettes,  small  patrols,  and  the  precau- 
tions described  for  independent  pickets.  In  these  cases  the  use  of  fire  is 
rigorously  forbidden,  no  matter  how  well  concealed  the  place  may  be. 
If  any  inhabitants  are  found  on  the  spot,  they  must  be  detained  until  the 
patrol  departs.  During  the  winter,  halts  are  made  at  isolated  houses,  or 
small  hamlets,  taking  care  that  none  of  the  inhabitants  pass  beyond  the 
chain  of  sentinels .  established  by  the  patrol. 

§  371.  Patrols  being  in  small  force,  in  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of 
being  cut  off,  should  never  remain  long  in  any  one  place. 

§  372.  All  patrols,  especially  those  intended  to  examine  the  country, 
should,  if  possible,  return  by  a  different  route  from  that  by  which  they 
advanced;  besides  thus  increasing  their  own  security,  they  examine  a 
greater  space,  and  bring  back  information  concerning  two  roads  instead 
of  one. 

§  373.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  commander  of  a  patrol  sent  to 
examine  the  country  should  make  sketches  of  the  ground  passed  over,  or 
at  least  describe  in  great  detail  all  the  objects  met  with  of  any  import- 
ance in  a  military  point  of  view,  such  as  roads,  rivers,  forests,  and  defiles. 
Whether  the  roads  are  practicable  for  all  kinds  of  troops ;  the  nature  of 
the  road-bed ;  whither  the  roads  lead  ;  and  whether  they  are  the  shortest. 
The  extent  of  the  forests;  whether  they  are  dense  or  open,  marshy  or 
dry.  The  size  of  the  villages ;  whether  they  are  situated  on  heights  or 
in  hollows ;  whether  they  contain  churches  and  mills ;  whether  a  stream 
runs  through  them  in  one  channel,  or  in  several  branches,  or  around 
them;  whether  the  inhabitants  have  many  cattle  and  much  provisions. 
With  regard  to  rivers,  he  observes  their  depth,  fords,  and  bridges; 
whether  the  bottom  is  boggy  or  hard ;  the  declivity  and  height  of  the 
banks ;  which  bank  is  the  higher,  and  where  it  is  easiest  to  cross.  As 
to  marshes,  he  notes  their  extent;  whether  they  are  passable;  whether 
there  are  dikes  across  them,  and  of  what  kind.  In  reference  to  defiles, 
he  notes  their  length  and  breadth ;  describes  the  adjacent  country,  and 
whether  the  defiles  can  be  turned.  Where  the  commanders  of  patrols 
cannot  go  in  person,  they  interrogate  the  inhabitants  concerning  these 
things,  and  compare  the  various  replies  received. 

§  374.  Since  special  acquirements  are  necessary  for  the  successful 
accomplishment  of  the  object  of  these  patrols,  an  officer  of  the  staff  is 
sent  with  each  of  them,  or  is  placed  in  command. 

§  375.  Sometimes  patrols  are  sent  out  to  alarm  the  enemy's  outposts. 
These  attempts  usually  succeed  when  the  latter  are  very  much  scattered ;  for 
then,  to  repulse  the  attack,  he  collects  his  posts ;  but  the  patrol,  having 
gained  its  object,  that  is,  having  alarmed  the  enemy,  in  the  mean  while 
retreats  in  safety. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN   TIME    OF    WAR.  459 

§  376.  Such  attacks  are  made  in  preference  in  the  night,  or  in  dark 
and  bad  weather.  The  patrol,  concealing  its  weakness,  should  silently 
steal  up  to  the  enemy ;  for  on  this  depends  its  success. 

Having  approached  the  outposts,  it  should  rapidly,  noisily,  and  with 
warm  firing  fall  on  them  as  foragers,  create  an  alarm,  seize,  if  possible, 
some  of  the  vedettes  or  pickets,  and  then  retreat  rapidly  before  the  enemy 
recovers. 

§  377.  As  a  conclusion  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  this  chapter,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  principal  duties  of  the  commander  of  a  patrol  are  the 
following : 

1.  To  be  always  cautious. 

2.  Always  to  provide  for  the  security  of  his  retreat. 

3.  Never  to  allow  himself  to  be  surrounded  and  captured. 

4.  To  examine  the  country  carefully,  and  remember  its  features. 

5.  To  obtain  all  possible  information  from  the  inhabitants. 

6.  To  understand  how  to  select  guides  and  how  to  treat  them ;  and, 

7.  To  endeavor  to  examine  every  thing  in  person. 

§  378.  As  for  the  rest,  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  commander  of  a 
patrol  instructions  in  sufficient  detail  to  cover  all  the  exceptional  cases 
that  may  arise ;  therefore  the  success  of  his  mission  must  depend  chiefly 
upon  his  discretion  and  presence  of  mind. 

Rashness,  equally  with  cowardice,  both  here  and  everywhere,  fails  to 
secure  the  desired  advantages. 


CHAPTER  V. 

OF  THE  COMMAND  OF  THE  OUTPOSTS. 

§  379.  In  order  to  secure  unity  in  the  arrangements  and  operations  of 
the  outposts,  a  field  or  general  officer  is  detailed  as  the  commander  of  the 
outposts ;  all  the  parties  are  under  his  command. 

There  is  usually  detailed  for  duty  with  him  an  officer  of  the  staff, 
whose  particular  duty  it  is  to  prepare  an  accurate  and  rapid  description 
of  the  ground. 

§  380.  The  commander  of  the  outposts  may  either  be  detailed  for  a 
certain  length  of  time,  or  be  relieved  at  the  same  time  with  his  troops ; 
in  the  latter  case,  he  is  usually  the  senior  officer  of  the  troops  detailed 
for  outpost  duty. 

§  381.  Having  received  from  the  commander-in-chief,  or  the  chief  of 
staff,  instructions  as  to  their  operations,  the  general  direction  and  extent 
of  the  chain,  information  of  the  number  of  troops,  and  destination  of 
the  parties  detailed  for  the  service,  he  sees  to  the  prompt  occupation  of 


460  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

the  places  designated  for  the  positions  of  the  outposts, — making,  in 
general,  such  modifications  of  the  arrangement  as  may  appear  necessary. 

§  382.  He  receives  every  day  from  the  commander-in-chief,  in  writing, 
and  under  an  envelope,  the  parole,  watchword,  and  countersign  ;  he  com- 
municates these  to  the  commanders  of  the  main  guards  for  the  use  of 
their  posts. 

§  383.  He  gives  the  necessary  instructions  to  the  commanders  of  the 
main  guards,  pickets,  and  other  posts,  and  maintains  a  constant  watch 
over  their  punctuality  and  vigilance  in  the  execution  of  their  duty,  and 
sees  that  they  keep  up  the  necessary  connection  with  each  other. 

§  384.  He  should  be  informed  of  every  thing  that  happens  at  the 
chain  j  nothing  should  escape  his  attention  with  respect  to  the  posts,  and 
guarding  the  ground  around  them ;  it  is  his  duty  not  only  to  correct,  but 
anticipate,  negligence,  and  to  give  all  necessary  directions. 

§  385.  He  makes  the  distribution  of  patrols,  determining  from  what 
parties,  by  what  roads,  and  how  far  they  are  to  move;  he  despatches 
distant  patrols,  and  gives  to  their  commanders  detailed  and  precise  orders. 

§  386.  He  arranges  the  despatching  of  rounds  to  visit  the  outposts, 
and  also  goes  around  in  person.  He  informs  betimes  the  commanders  of 
the  main  guards  and  pickets  as  to  who  will  be  sent  on  the  rounds.  The 
hours  of  sending  out  the  rounds  depend  upon  his  judgment;  usually 
they  go  out  during  the  night  and  before  dawn. 

§  387.  Upon  the  arrival  of  flags  of  truce,  deserters,  or  strangers,  he 
acts  according  to  the  instructions  received  from  the  commander-in-chief, 
or  chief  of  staff,  to  whoni  he  ought  to  refer  in  all  doubtful  cases. 

§  388.  The  post  of  the  commander  of  the  outposts  is  with  the  reserve, 
whither  all  reports  are  sent  from  the  outposts ;  but  if  there  is  no  reserve, 
he  places  himself  with  the  main  guard  which  is  nearest  the  centre  of  the 
general  position.  In  every  case  he  notifies  all  the  commanders  where  he 
will  be,  that  they  may  know  where  to  send  their  reports. 

§  389.  But  he  so  arranges  matters  that,  if  he  is  not  found  at  the  place 
designated,  the  report,  no  matter  what  it  is,  may  be  forwarded  direct  to 
the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard,  and  also  that  this  may  in  general 
be  carried  out  in  cases  where  the  point  from  which  the  report  originates  is 
nearer  to  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  than  to  his  own  habitual 
position;  but  he  takes  care  that  he  himself  shall,  in  all  cases,  be  promptly 
informed  of  every  thing  that  occurs. 

§  390.  The  commander  of  the  outposts,  having  received  reliable  reports 
from  all  his  parties,  regulates  their  operations  in  conformity  with  his 
instructions,  and  conducts  their  movements,  either  so  as  to  repulse  the 
attempts  of  the  enemy,  or  to  concentrate  the  parties,  or  to  afford  support 
to  any  of  them,  or,  finally,  to  make  a  general  retreat. 

§  391.  He  promptly  reports  to  the    commander-in-chief  every  thing 


OF   CAVALJIY  IN   TIME   OF  WAR.  461 

deserving  attention  that  has  been  observed,  and  also  sends  him  early 
reports  of  his  intentions. 

§  392.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  commander-in-chief  at  the  outposts, 
their  commander  accompanies  him  over  the  whole  position. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


OF  THE  DUTIES  OF  HUNTERS,  FRIENDLY  INDIANS,  ETC.,  AT  THE 

OUTPOSTS* 

§  393.  Outpost  service  is  performed  by  these  kinds  of  troops  rather 
diflferently  from  the  manner  pursued  in  the  regular  cavalry.  Adopting 
for  them  the  rules  herein  contained,  and  which  can  be  explained  to  them 
by  their  chiefs,  they  may  be  advantageously  employed  in  advance  of  the 
regular  cavalry. 

§  394.  The  main  difference  is,  that  the  advanced  chain  does  not  consist 
of  double  vedettes,  relieved  every  two  hours,  but  of  pickets  of  3  or  4  men 
each,  on  duty  for  24  hours,  and  relieving  each  other  in  the  task  of  watch- 
ing the  enemy. 

§  395.  These  pickets  are  placed  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  they  can 
see  each  other,  or  at  least  that  the  enemy  cannot  slip  through  without 
being  seen  by  one  or  other  of  the  pickets. 

§  396.  In  each  picket  one  man,  mounted,  or  on  foot,  with  his  horse 
bridled  by  his  side,  constantly  watches  the  whole  spaces  committed  to  the 
picket;  another  remains  behind  him  in  full  readiness  to  mount;  but  the 
others  repose,  feed  their  horses,  lead  them  to  water,  and  even  go  in  search 
of  forage. 

§  397.  If  the  pickets  are  pushed  very  far  in  advance  of  the  regular 
cavalry,  lines  of  supports  are  placed  behind  them.  These  supports  are 
placed  in  preference  near  roads,  or  points  of  special  importance,  where 
they  may  serve  as  points  of  assembly  for  the  chain  of  pickets. 

§  398.  The  supports  usually  consist  of  from  6  to  12  men  each.  One 
of  them,  usually  standing  to  horse,  places  himself  in  sight  of  the  chain 
of  pickets,  also  turning  his  attention  to  the  ground  on  each  side.  Of  the 
rest  of  the  men  a  part  hold  themselves  in  readiness,  while  the  others  rest, 
feed  and  water  their  horses,  and,  if  necessary,  go  for  forage. 

§  399.  The  remainder  of  the  companies,  or  the  regiment  on  duty, 
usually  form  a  reserve,  about  a  mile  in  rear  of  the  lines  of  supports,  on 
the  principal  road,  or  behind  the  centre  of  the  chain.     A  part  of  this 

*  This  chapter  is  taken  from  one  in  the  Russian  regulations,  relating  to  the  duty  of 
Cossa,ck8  at  the  outposts. 


462  REGULATIONS  FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

reserve  is  held  in  readiness  to  mount,  but  the  greater  part  repose,  and  even 
hobble  or  picket  their  horses. 

§  400.  The  quick  sight,  activity,  and  vigilance  of  the  men,  referred  to 
in  this  chapter,  are  such  as  to  allow  a  greater  interval  between  these 
pickets  than  between  the  pairs  of  ordinary  vedettes.  The  supports,  not 
being  intended  to  relieve  the  chain,  but  merely  to  serve  as  rallying-points, 
may  also  be  placed  farther  apart  than  the  pickets  of  regular  cavalry. 
Finally,  instead  of  main  guards,  there  is  in  this  case  but  one  main  reserve. 
From  these  facts  it  would  appear  that  reliable  men,  of  the  kind  alluded 
to  here,  may  guard  a  given  space  with  a  smaller  number  of  men,  and  less 
fatigue,  than  regular  cavalry.  Reserves  of  light  cavalry  should  be  posted 
on  a  line  with  the  main  reserve  of  the  irregulars.  The  Indian  horses 
being  peculiarly  capable  of  enduring  the  fatigue  of  outpost  duty,  the 
friendly  Indians,  if  there  are  any  present,  should  compose  the  outposts  in 
preference. 

§  401.  During  the  night  and  in  dark  weather  the  intervals  between  the 
irregular  pickets  must  be  decreased,  as  prescribed  for  vedettes. 

§  402.  Regular  patrols  and  rounds  need  not  be  so  much  resorted  to, 
but  each  particular  chief  should  often  ride  around  the  whole  circuit  of 
his  command. 

§  403.  The  irregular  reserve  will  from  time  to  time  send  out  patrols  of 
5,  10,  or  15  men  to  reconnoitre  in  all  directions. 


CHAPTEK  VIL 


OF  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  OUTPOSTS  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
NATURE  OF  THE  GROUND. 

§  404.  The  art  of  arranging  the  outposts  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ground  is  founded  upon :  1.  The  proper  general  direction  of  the 
advanced  chain;  2.  The  distribution  of  the  supports;  and,  3.  The  com- 
position of  the  supports.  The  object  to  be  gained  is  to  discover  the 
enemy  at  the  greatest  possible  distance  with  the  smallest  possible  number 
of  men,  without  exposing  any  of  the  posts  to  be  cut  off. 

§  405.  The  general  line  of  the  outposts  is  generally  determined  by 
some  natural  objects,  such  as  the  banks  of  rivers,  creeks,  borders  of 
ravines,  marshes,  skirts  of  woods,  crests  of  heights,  &c. 

§  406.  The  chain  of  vedettes  should  cross  objects  favoring  the  view  of 
the  surrounding  country,  and  its  flanks  should  rest  on  impracticable 
places.  It  should  be  neither  too  far  advanced  nor  too  close  in :  in  the 
first  case,  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  vedettes  to  retreat ;  in  the  last  case, 
the  troops  guarded  would  not  have  the  necessary  time  given  them. 


OF   CAVALRY   IN   TIME   OF   WAR.  463 

§  407.  The  chain  should  not  be  so  placed  as  to  have  close  in  front  of  it 
covered  places,  villages,  woods,  and  such  objects;  if  it  is  not  possible  to 
throw  the  chain  in  advance  of  these  places  without  too  great  an  exten- 
sion, it  is  best  to  draw  it  a  great  deal  to  the  rear.  If  this  last  cannot  be 
done,  for  want  of  space,  it  only  remains  to  redouble  vigilance  and  send 
out  more  frequent  patrols. 

§  408.  If  the  chain  is  placed  behind  an  impassable  object,  such  as  a 
broad  river  or  a  very  bad  marsh,  it  may  be  made  thinner  than  usual,  or 
even  be  entirely  dispensed  with;  in  the  latter  case,  patrols  must  be  sent 
out,  more  or  less  frequently,  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  impractica- 
bility of  the  ground  and  the  difficulty  of  examining  it.  In  no  case  should 
any  portion  of  the  ground  remain  entirely  unwatched,  however  impracti- 
cable it  may  appear  to  be. 

§  409.  In  mountainous  regions,  where  the  broken  nature  of  the  country 
embarrasses  communications  and  facilitates  the  concealment  of  the  enemy's 
movements  on  all  sides,  the  outposts  draw  nearer  together  than  the  speci- 
fied normal  distances,  and  sometimes  the  camp  is  entirely  surrounded  by  a 
chain  of  vedettes. 

§  410.  In  the  general  line  of  the  outposts  there  maybe  places  unfit  for 
the  operations  of  cavalry;  such  portions  are  necessarily  occupied  by 
infantry,  all  the  rest  by  cavalry :  in  such  cases,  one  part  of  the  chain  will 
consist  of  mounted  vedettes,  the  rest  of  pairs  of  infantry  sentinels.  In 
this  case,  the  outposts  are  formed  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  each  guarding 
the  ground  destined  for  it  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  for  that  arm ; 
but  such  a  chain  of  outposts  should  form  one  general  whole,  and  the  dif- 
ferent parts  must  maintain  a  constant  union,  unless  separated  by  wholly 
impassable  obstacles. 

§  411.  The  vedettes  should  be  posted  at  the  points  commanding  the 
most  distant  views ;  in  the  day  they  are  placed  on  the  summits  of  the 
hills,  at  night  they  fall  back  to  the  foot  of  the  slope.  They  should  also 
be  concealed  by  some  natural  object,  which,  at  the  same  time,  permits 
them  to  see  all  around.  Between  the  pairs  of  vedettes  there  should  be 
no  covered  places  which  might  conceal  the  approach  of  the  enemy. 

§  412.  In  the  distribution  of  the  supports  of  the  chain,  that  is,  the 
pickets,  main  guards,  and  reserves,  they  are  posted  in  preference  at  places 
around  which  the  enemy  cannot  pass,  or,  at  least,  at  places  where  he  may 
most  probably  be  expected ;  therefore,  they  are  usually  posted  near  the 
roads,  especially  at  cross-roads. 

§  413.  Another  condition  in  the  distribution  of  the  supports  is  that 
each  should,  if  possible,  see  the  parties  directly  subordinate  to  it,  and  to 
which  it  ought  to  give  immediate  support.  This  is  particularly  important 
for  the  pickets  in  relation  to  the  vedettes,  because  on  the  approach  of  the 
enemy  the  latter  form  part  of  the  former.     . 


464  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

§  414.  A  third  condition  for  the  proper  distribution  of  the  supports  is 
that  they  should  be  coDcealed  until  the  moment  for  action  arrives. 

§  415.  Finally,  a  fourth  condition  is  that  they  should  be  placed  in  posi- 
tions suitable  for  their  operations ;  that  is,  cavalry  should  have  an  open 
unobstructed  space  in  their  front,  but  infantry,  an  obstructed  country. 
This  condition  is  of  peculiar  importance  in  regard  to  the  reserve,  which 
is  expected  to  make  a  more  obstinate  resistance  than  the  main  guard  and 
pickets. 

§  416.  In  order  to  preserve  the  general  union  between  all  parts  of  the 
outposts,'  and  more  especially  between  the  outposts  and  the  troops  guarded 
by  them,  there  should  be  no  impassable  obstacles  between  them ;  this  is  to 
avoid  exposing  any  party  to  being  cut  off  and  defeated  separately.  If 
there  is  behind  the  chain  of  vedettes  a  place  across  which  communication 
is  difficult,  it  is  best  to  place  the  main  guards  or  pickets  near  it,  that  they 
may  hold  the  crossings,  and  permit  the  fulfilment  of  the  other  conditions 
for  a  good  arrangement. 

§  417.  Pickets  relieving  vedettes  should  always  be  composed  of  the 
same  kind  of  troops  as  their  vedettes ;  the  main  guards  and  reserves  are 
composed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  between  the  pickets  and 
the  camp ;  in  places  suitable  for  cavalry  they  consist  of  that  arm,  in 
defensive  positions  they  are  of  infantry. 

§  418.  To  secure  their  greater  independence,  the  reserves  of  the  out- 
posts may  sometimes  be  composed  of  all  three  arms ;  but  in  an  open, 
unobstructed  country  they  may  be  of  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  alone. 

§  419.  Example  of  the  arrangement  of  outposts  composed  of  cavalry 
alone.   (Fig.  8.) 

It  is  supposed  that  an  advanced  guard,  consisting  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry 
and  a  division  of  infantry,  is  in  the  village  A,  and  that  it  is  necessary  to 
guard  it  against  the  enemy,  expected  by  the  roads  B. 

§  420.  To  determine  the  line  of  observation  to  be  occupied  by  the  out- 
posts, the  whole  ground  between  the  position  of  the  advanced  guard  and 
the  points  accessible  by  the  enemy  must  first  be  carefully  examined  on  the 
map ;  from  the  selection  of  the  line  of  observation  results  the  composition 
of  the  chain  and  its  supports. 

§  421.  In  this  example,  according  to  the  conditions  already  mentioned, 
the  most  advantageous  line  of  observation  is  that  proceeding  from  the 
village  L,  through  the  villages  M  and  N,  thence  following  the  ridge  0  to 
the  lake  P.     This  line  is  favorable,  because : 

•  1.  The  right  flank,  resting  on  the  marsh  near  the  village  L,  cannot  be 
turned,  and  requires  no  further  extension. 

2.  The  left  flank,  resting  on  the  lake,  allows  us  to  observe  from  the 
ridge  the  distant  movements  of  the  enemy ;  the  ridge  also  conceals  our 
own  movements  from  the  ene;ny  in  that  direction. 


OF   CAVALRY   IN   TIME   OF   WAR. 
Fig.  8. 


J.Ci 


The  aiivance<l  guard  A,  composed  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry  and  a  division  of  infantry, 
i>  in  the  village  A,  and  it  is  necessary  to  post  outposts  to  guard  it  against  the  enemy, 
expected  by  the  roads  B  ;  10  companies  of  cavalry  and  2  pieces  of  horse  artillery  are  de- 
tailed for  the  outposts  and  reserve.  C  is  the  reserve,  consisting  of  4  companies  and  2 
guns.  D,  D',  and  D"  are  the  main  guards,  consisting  of  one  company  each.  E,  E,  E', 
E",  E",  E'",  are  the  pickets,  of  a  platoon  each.  H  is  an  independent  picket,  of  one 
platoon,  observing  the  road  K. 


_  Infantry. 

Cavalry. 

• - -Cavalry  vedettes. 


/2 


d  Scale  of  miles. 


466  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

3.  Without  being  too  far  off,  the  chain  is  at  such  a  distance  that  every 
movement  of  the  enemy  can  be  discovered  in  season  to  enable  the  advanced 
guard  to  take  all  its  measures  for  operating  against  him. 

§  422.  Upon  the  nature  of  the  ground  over  which  the  line  of  observa- 
tion extends  must  depend  the  kind  of  troops  who  are  to  hold  it. 

In  this  example,  from  the  appearance  of  the  ground  towards  the  enemy 
and  towards  the  advanced  guard,  it  seems  that  cavalry  can  act  with  advan- 
tage ;  therefore  all  the  outposts  are  of  that  arm. 

The  extent  of  the  line  is  a  little  more  than  5  miles  :  therefore,  accord- 
ing to  the  estimate  in  §  193,  6  companies  will  be  required  for  the  vedettes, 
pickets,  and  main  guards.  As  the  ground  opposes  no  obstacles  to  the 
action  of  cavalry,  the  reserve  should  also  be  of  that  arm.  This  reserve, 
consisting  of  4  companies  of  cavalry  and  2  pieces  of  horse  artillery,  is 
posted  at  the  central  point  C,  whence  it  can  easily  move  to  all  parts  of 
the  outposts. 

§  423.  In  accordance  with  the  principles  just  explained,  the  commander 
of  the  advanced  guard  issues  in  this  case  instructions  to  the  following 
purport : 

1.  The  Nth  regiment  of  cavalry  and  2  pieces  of  the  Nth  battery  of  horse 
artillery  are  detailed  for  outpost  duty.  These  troops  will  post  a  chain  of 
vedettes  from  the  village  L,  through  the  villages  M  and  N,  and  along  the 
ridge  0  to  the  lake  P. 

2.  Patrols  will  be  sent  out :  from  the  village  L  to  F ;  from  the  picket 
E'",  along  the  road  Gr;  and  from  the  other  posts,  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  enemy  is  expected. 

3.  If  the  enemy  attacks  in  force,  the  outposts  will  fall  back  upon  the 
advanced  guard. 

With  these  instructions  as  a  basis,  the  commander  of  the  outposts 
makes  his  assignments ;  each  company  is  directed  where  to  take  position, 
and  between  what  points  to  occupy  the  line  of  observation ;  all  the  parties 
axe  posted  as  explained  above  and  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

§  424.  If,  in  the  example  given  in  Fig.  8,  the  right  flank  of  the 
advanced  guard  is  not  regarded  as  sufficiently  protected  by  the  marsh, 
then  an  independent  picket,  consisting  of  a  platoon,  is  posted  at  H,  to 
watch  the  road  leading  through  the  village  I  j  this  picket  posts  two  pairs 
of  vedettes. 

§  425.  Example  of  the  arrangement  of  outposts  composed  of  both 
cavalry  and  infantry.   (Fig.  9.) 

It  is  supposed  that  the  advanced  guard  A,  consisting  of  a  brigade  of 
cavalry  and  a  division  of  infantry,  is  placed  behind  the  village  B,  and 
that  outposts  are  to  be  posted  to  guard  against  an  attack  by  the  enemy 
arriving  from  the  direction  of  the  village  C. 

§  426.  With  this  arrangement  of  the  advanced  guard,  it  is  best  to  place 


OF   CAVALRY   IN   TIME   OF   WAR. 


467 


Fig.  9. 


*£■;    _       ,  ^ 
^^^. 


-  ^ ^^:-':£4M^-ff'  ^^^m^  j^^^  :.r^?"T^  -  ^ 


The  advanced  guard  A,  consisting  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry  and  a  division  of  infantry, 
is  placed  behind  the  village  B,  and  outposts  are  to  be  posted  to  guard  against  an  attack 
by  the  enemy  arriving  from  the  direction  of  the  village  C  ;  4  companies  of  cavalry,  2 
regiments  of  infantry,  and  2  pieces  of  foot  artillery  are  detailed  to  furnish  the  outposts 
and  reserve. 

D  is  the  reserve,  consisting  of  li  companies  of  cavalry,  11  companies  of  infantry,  and 
?  pieces  of  foot  artillery. 

E  is  a  main  guard  of  3  companies  of  infantry,  which  famishes  the  two  pickets  F,  each  * 
of  which  posts  5  pairs  of  sentinels. 

E'  is  an  infantry  main  guard  of  2  companies,  which  supports  the  two  cavalry  pickets 
H,  each  of  which  consists  of  a  platoon  and  posts  3  pairs  of  vedettes.  E"  is  an  infantry 
main  guard  of  2  companies,  to  support  the  cavalry  picket  H',  which  posts  4  vedettes,  and 
H  ',  which  posts  1  vedette.  E'"  is  an  infantry  main  guard  of  2  compsinies,  which  holds 
the  cemetery  and  supports  the  cavalry  picket  H'",  posting  3  vedettes. 


V^''<^-:f'mmi     ^. 


Infantry. 


Cavalry. 


Scale  of  miles 


468  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

the  outposts  on  the  left  side  of  the  creek  M,  because  if  the  line  of  posts 
were  limited  by  the  stream  it  would  be  difficult  to  obtain  information  of 
the  movements  of  the  enemy's  advanced  guard. 

§  427.  The  best  line  of  observation  is  from  the  lake  N  to  the  corner 
of  the  village  B,  then  along  the  edge  of  this  village  to  the  marsh  Q.  On 
account  of  its  shortness  and  the  nature  of  the  objects  on  which  its  flanks 
rest,  this  line  is  very  advantageous.  From  the  lakq  N  to  the  village  B 
(about  IJ  mile)  it  may  be  held  by  cavalry;  along  the  edge  of  the  village, 
(about  f  of  a  mile,)  by  infantry. 

§  428.  To  prevent  the  line  from  being  turned,  independent  pickets 
must  in  this  case  be  posted  on  the  left  flank,  near  the  lake  N  and  the 
height  0,  on  the  right  flank  on  the  road  L ;  to  support  the  pickets  and 
defend  the  villages  and  crossings,  it  is  best  that  all  the  main  guards  should 
be  of  infantry. 

§  429.  Thus  the  line  will  consist  of  2  cavalry  and  2  infantry  pickets, 
holding  the  main  line  of  observation,  of  3  independent  cavalry  pickets, 
and  of  4  infantry  main  guards.  To  supply  these,  5  platoons  of  cavalry 
and  about  9  companies  of  infantry  will  be  necessary;  so  that  for  the 
whole  outpost  service,  including  the  reserve,  there  may  be  detailed  4 
companies  of  cavalry,  2  battalions  of  infantry,  and  2  pieces  of  foot  artil- 
lery. 

§  430.  On  this  basis  the  commander  of  the  outposts  receives  the  follow- 
ing instructions : 

1.  Four  companies  of  the  Nth  regiment  of  cavalry,  the  Mth  and  Nth 
regiments  of  infantry,  and  2  pieces  of  the  Nth  foot  battery  are  detailed 
for  the  outposts. 

2.  The  cavalry  will  occupy  the  line  of  the  outposts  from  the  lake  N, 
along  the  ravine  P,  to  the  corner  of  the  village  B;  the  infantry,  from  this 
last  point,  along  the  edge  of  the  village  to  the  marsh  Q. 

One  independent  cavalry  picket  will  be  posted  near  the  village  B, 
another  in  front  of  the  village  I,  a  third  on  the  road  L. 

3.  The  main  guards  will  be  of  infantry,  posted  as  follows:  one,  of  2 
companies,  in  the  cemetery  near  the  end  of  the  village  B ;  another,  of  3 
companies,  in  that  village ;  a  third,  of  2  companies,  in  the  village  G  j  a 
fourth,  of  2  companies,  in  the  village  I. 

4.  The  rest  of  the  troops  detailed  will  form  the  reserve  of  the  outposts, 
and  be  posted  at  D,  on  the  main  road,  behind  the  crossing  over  the 
stream  M. 

5.  As  long  as  the  enemy  does  not  show  a  strong  force  of  infantry,  every 
effort  will  be  made  to  keep  him  beyond  the  villages. 

Under  the  foregoing  instructions  the  outposts  may  be  arranged  as  shown 
in  Fig.  9. 

§  431.  Finally,  among  the  examples  of  the  disposition    of  outposts 


OF    CAVALJIY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  469 

according  to  the  ground  may  be  considered  the  case  of  a  locality  which 
permits  the  enemy  to  approach  only  by  a  few  passes.  If  he  is  separated 
from  us  by  a  river,  a  marsh,  rough  hills,  &c.,  and  can  approach  only  by 
known  fords,  passages,  or  narrow  defiles,  then,  if  these  points  are  occupied 
by  independent  pickets,  there  will  be  no  necessity  for  a  continuous  chain 
of  vedettes. 

Remark. — ^Whenever  the  camp  is  behind  a  river,  the  outposts  should 
convey  to  their  own  side  all  the  boats  and  other  means  of  crossing. 

§  432.  In  such  cases,  the  independent  pickets  are  posted  at  points 
which  the  enemy  cannot  turn. 

§  433.  For  their  own  safety,  they  post  vedettes;  if  the  ground  permits, 
they  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  patrols. 

§  434.  If  it  is  necessary  to  support  the  independent  pickets,  reserves 
are  placed  as  directed  in  §  412. 

§  435.  Example  of  the  arrangement  of  the  outposts  in  a  locality  where 
the  enemy  can  approach  only  hy  a  few  passes.     (Fig.  10.) 

It  is  supposed  that  a  detachment,  composed  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry 
and  a  division  of  infantry,  is  placed  at  the  village  A  to  guard,  in  connec- 
tion with  another  detachment  at  B,  the  troops  following  from  the  north, 
and  that  outposts  are  to'be  posted;  and  that  it  is  known  that  the  advanced 
troops  of  the  enemy,  approaching  from  the  south,  have  not  yet  occupied 
the  village  N,  and  that  they  cannot  turn  the  passages  over  the  stream  P. 

§  436.  It  is  evident  that  it  is  unnecessary,  in  this  case,  to  post  a  con- 
tinuous chain  of  vedettes,  and  that  it  will  be  sufficient  to  place  independent 
pickets  on  the  main  roads,  at  proper  distances  from  the  advanced  detach- 
ment to  be  supported  by  it,  and  keep  up  the  communication  with  the  de- 
tachment at  B. 

§  437.  Upon  examining  the  ground  in  front  of  A  and  B,  it  is  evident 
that  the  stream  P  is  the  most  advantageous  line  of  observation,  and  that 
the  main  detachment  will  be  perfectly  secure  if  the  crossings  of  the 
stream  are  occupied  by  independent  pickets. 

§  438,  The  crossings  are  at  the  points  Q,  R,  S,  T,  U,  and  V.  Sup- 
posing the  crossing  at  Q  to  be  occupied  by  a  picket  from  the  detachment 
at  B,  and  that  each  picket  consists  of  a  platoon,  the  detachment  at 
A  must  furnish  5  platoons,  or  6  if  the  flank  picket  at  K  consists  of  a 
company. 

§  439.  Main  guards,  consisting  of  a  company  each,  are  posted  near 
the  villages  F  and  I;  and  there  may  be  a  reserve  of  4  or  5  companies 
and  a  few  guns  at  the  village  D. 

§  440.  The  pickets  posted  near  R,  S,  and  T,  should  send  out  patrols  to 
the  village  N,  and  the  pickets  near  U  and  V  send  patrols  to  the  village 
W ;  a  small  detachment  should  be  sent  through  the  village  X,  to  keep  on 
until  it  finds  the  enemy;  this  should  be  composed  of  a  company. 


470  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

Fig.  10. 


The  enemy  is  beyond  the  village  N ;  our  own  detachments  occupy  A  and  B ;  the  force  at 
A  consists  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry  and  a  division  of  infantry;  10  companies  of  cavalry 
and  two  pieces  of  horse  artillery  are  detailed  from  A  to  furnish  the  outposts  and  reserve. 
C  is  the  reserve,  consisting  of  5  companies  and  2  guns.  E  is  a  main  guard  of  1  company, 
supporting  the  pickets  G  and  G',  each  of  which  posts  a  vedette  at  the  crossings  R  and  S 
respectively.  E'  is  a  main  guard  of  1  company,  supporting  the  pickets  G",  which  post  one 
vedette  at  T  and  one  at  a  crossing  above,  and  G'",  which  posts  a  vedette  at  V.  The 
pickets  G,  Q',  G",  G'",  each  consist  of  a  platoon.  K  is  a  picket,  consisting  of  a  company 
which  posts  two  vedettes  near  the  village  L,  and  patrols  the  road  beyond. 

M  is  a  distant  patrol,  of  one  company,  detached  from  the  reserve  to  find  the  enemy. 
0  is  a  picket  belonging  to  the  detachment  B,  which  posts  a  vedette  at  the  crossing  Q. 


my^m^     4 Infantry. 


^^^^g^^^     ^  _ 


Cavalry. 


T     t      1 


Scale  of  miles 


OF    CAVAL.RY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  47I 

§  441.  On  these  principles  the  commander  of  the  outposts  receives  the 
following  instructions : 

1.  The  Xth  regiment  of  cavalry  and  2  pieces  of  the  Nth  horse  battery 
are  detailed  for  the  outposts. 

2.  Until  the  enemy  arrives  at  the  village  N,  the  outposts  will  keep 
only  independent  pickets  at  the  crossings  of  the  stream  P,  at  R,  S,  T,  U, 
and  V;  the  main  guards  to  be  companies  near  F,  I,  and  L;  in  order  to 
observe  the  enemy  better,  one  company  will  be  sent  through  the  village 
N,  to  keep  on  until  it  finds  the  enemy;  the  remainder  of  the  cavalry  and 
the  guns  will  be  posted  in  reserve  near  the  village  D.  Near  patrols  will 
be  sent  out,  a^  usual,  from  all  the  pickets,  in  the  direction  of  the  villages 
N  and  W,  and  distant  patrols  to  keep  on  until  they  find  the  enemy. 

To  carry  out  these  instructions,  the  outposts  may  be  arranged  as  shown 
in  fig.  10. 

§  442.  If  the  line  observed  by  the  independent  pickets  is  very  far 
from  the  camp,  and  it  is  not  intended  to  defend  it,  but  they  are  restricted 
to  observation  and  giving  notice  of  the  enemy's  approach,  then  this  line 
is  occupied  by  cavalry  alone,  according  to  the  rules  for  independent  pickets. 

§  443.  But  if  the  line  is  near  the  camp,  or  for  other  reasons  it  is 
necessary  to  defend  as  well  as  observe  it,  then  it  should  be  occupied  by 
infantry  in  force  proportionate  to  the  importance  of  the  case,  or  the  possi- 
bility of  holding  it  long  enough  to  permit  oth#r  troops  to  arrive. 

§  444.  Such  posts  are  called  independent  defensive  posts. 

If  an  independent  defensive  post  is  far  from  camp,  and  it  is  only  in- 
tended to  delay  the  advance  of  the  head  of  the  enemy's  column,  and  then 
fall  back  on  the  other  troops,  cavalry  should  occupy  it  in  preference. 

§  445.  In  such  cases  mounted  riflemen  are  of  great  use,  because  they 
repulse  the  enemy  by  acting  as  infantry,  and  can  retreat  with  the  rapidity 
of  cavalry  when  it  becomes  necessary;  and,  when  covering  the  retreat 
of  other  troops,  they  can  act  sometimes  as  infantry,  sometimes  as  cavalry, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  necessity  of  the  case. 

§  446.  In  an  independent  defensive  post,  the  party  on  duty  dismounts 
and  occupies  the  point  to  be  defended  as  infantry;  the  rest  of  the  men 
repose  near  the  horses,  observing  the  precautions  prescribed  for  main 
guards;  they  are  placed  in  rear  of  the  men  acting  as  infantry,  and  keep 
ihe  horses  bitted. 

§  447.  In  all  the  cases  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  precise  instructions 
are  given  to  the  commander  of  each  party  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  in  the 
event  of  the  appearance  of  the  enemy. 

§  448.  As  a  conclusion  to  this  chapter,  it  may  be  stated  that,  although 
the  disposition  of  the  outposts,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  is 
of  the  utmost  importance,  for  the  reason  that  success  in  watching  the 
enemy  depends  neither  on  the  number  nor  strength  of  the  outposts,  but 


472  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

on  their  skilful  aiTangement,  all  that  can  be  said  on  the  subject  is  limited 
rather  to  an  explanation  of  the  general  importance  of  objects  than  to 
laying  down  any  precise  rules.  In  all  cases  theory  must  yield  to  the 
judgment  of  the  commander,  for  a  blind  and  unconditional  following  of 
rules  may  result  in  injury  rather  than  advantage. 

From  all  that  precedes,  it  appears  that  troops  may  be  guarded  either 
by  continuous  chains  with  lines  of  supports,  or  by  independent  posts,  or 
by  patrols,  or,  finally,  by  all  three  methods  combined. 

But  there  is  no  doubt  that,  if  we  carefully  conform  to  the  priniiiples 
laid  down  for  each  of  these  arrangements,  one  of  them  will  often  sufl&ce; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  if  we  neglect  these  principles,  the  eiiiployment  of 
all  three  may  be  insufficient. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 


PRECAUTIONS   TO   BE   OBSERVED   IN   THE   CAMP   OF   THE 
MAIN   BODY. 

§  449.  To  avoid  fatiguing  the  troops  by  keeping  all  of  them  constantly 
ready  for  a  movement  and  combat,  but  at  the  same  time  to  secure  them 
against  attack,  and  be  abj^  to  afford  prompt  assistance  to  the  outposts,  a 
portion  of  the  main  body  is  detailed  as  an  inlying  picket. 

§  450.  The  inlying  picket  must  always  be  ready  for  action  on  the  first 
order  or  signal.  The  men  should  therefore  always  be  to  the  front,  and 
be  dressed  both  by  day  and  night;  their  arms  should  be  loaded,  and  their 
horses  saddled  but  unbitted  and  picketed;  they  are  taken  to  water  by 
turns,  in  parties.  In  the  artillery,  the  men  of  the  inlying  picket  are 
always  dressed,  the  horses  have  their  collars  on,  and  are  taken  to  water 
only  by  piece  or  by  section. 

§  451.  It  rests  with  the  commander  of  the  main  body,  according  to  the 
news  he  has  of  the  enemy,  whether  to  direct  additional  precautions  on 
the,  part  of  the  inlying  picket;  for  instance,  that  the  men  should  wear 
their  accoutrements,  &c. 

§  452.  The  strength  of  the  inlying  picket  is  regulated  by  the  com- 
mander of  the  detachment,  or  army,  in  conformity  with  the  degree  of 
danger,  the  proximity  of  the  enemy,  and  his  means  of  turning  our  posi- 
tion.    Approximately,  the  inlying  picket  is  4  or  \  of  the  whole  force. 

§  453.  In  small  detachments  from  which  it  is  impossible  to  send  out 
many  men  on  outpost  duty,  and  in  general  near  the  enemy,  the  whole 
detachment  sometimes  forms  a  kind  of  inlying  picket ;  in  this  case  only 
a  small  number  are  relieved  at  a  time,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the 
commander,  but  the  greater  portion  remain  in  readiness  for  action. 


OF   CAVAL^RY   IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  473 

§  454.  Upon  receiving  from  the  outposts  news  of  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  the  inlying  picket  at  once  moves  to  the  front  to  receive  the  out- 
posts and  afford  the  other  troops  time  to  prepare. 

§  455.  For  greater  security,  the  inlying  picket  is  sometimes  posted  a 
little  to  the  front,  and  then  picket  their  horses  somewhat  in  advance  of 
the  general  camp.  This  is  done  whenever  there  is  any  thing  immediately 
in  front  of  the  camp  to  cause  delay. 

§  456.  The  commander  and  all  the  officers  of  the  inlying  picket  will 
strictly  superintend  the  observation  of  all  the  precautions  required. 

§  457.  To  prevent  confusion  in  the  camp  in  case  of  an  alarm  or  an 
attack,  it  is  necessary  to  watch — 

1.  That  all  parts  of  the  troops  are  arranged  in  conformity  with  the 
movements  they  are  to  make,  so  that  they  can  form  in  order  of  battle 
without  confusion,  and  without  crossing  each  other's  paths. 

2.  That  all  commanders,  down  to  those  of  regiments  and  batteries,  in- 
clusive, know  the  places  their  commands  are  to  occupy  in  the  general 
order  of  battle,  if  it  is  determined  to  accept  battle  at  or  near  the  camp. 

3.  That  all  impediments  to  the  free  communications  and  movements 
of  the  troops  are  removed  in  season  as  far  as  practicable. 

4.  That  the  commander  of  the  train  is  always  informed  whither  to 
direct  it,  in  case  of  leaving  camp  suddenly. 

5.  That  the  parties  of  troops,  from  whom  mixed  detachments  are  sent 
out  for  forage  and  other  necessaries,  are  formed  immediately  after  their 
departure,  to  count  and  organize  those  remaining. 

§  458.  The  commander  of  the  main  body  should  be  well  informed  in 
regard  to  all  the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  his  position,  and  especially  as 
to  the  roads  and  crossings  of  streams  in  the  direction  in  which  he  expects 
to  move. 

§  459.  In  camps  of  the  main  body,  the  inlying  picket  posts  camp  and 
quarter  guards  immediately  after  reaching  camp ;  this  is  done  as  in  time 
of  peace. 

§  460.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  sentinels  of  the  camp  and  quarter  guards 
to  see  that  no  one  leaves  camp  between  evening  twilight  and  reveille 
without  a  special  permit  from  the  commander,  unless  on  duty. 

Men  who  are  not  known,  and  do  not  belong  to  the  troops,  or  who 
have  not  the  necessary  permission,  are  allowed  to  leave  camp  neither  by 
day  nor  night,  but  are  stoppecf  by  the  sentinels  and  sent  to  the  guards, 
by  whom  they  are  sent  to  the  inlying  picket.  *  * 

§  461.  In  the  night  the  sentinels  of  the  camp  and  quarter  guards  chal- 
lenge all  who  approach  from  the  exterior,  and  act  as  prescribed  for  vedettes. 

§  462.  In  general,  all  the  rules  laid  do\yi  for  camp  and  garrison  service 
in  time  of  peace  are  carried  out  as  far"  as  possible  in  the  camps  of  the 
main  body. 


474  REGULATIONS   FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  FOR  THE  SECURITY  OF 
CANTONMENTS. 

Article  1. 
Of  advanced  detachments. 

§  463.  Troops  in  cantonments,  being  scattered  over  a  great  space,  and 
requiring  much  time  to  assemble,  are  not  covered  by  a  continuous  chain 
of  outposts.  In  this  case,  the  arrangements  for  the  early  discovery  of  the 
approach  of  the  enemy  are  made  entirely  by  the  cavalry,  who  must,  by 
means  of  their  outposts,  patrols,  and  parties,  watch  the  whole  space  in 
front  of  the  cantonments  towards  the  enemy. 

§  464.  These  outposts  consist  entirely  of  independent  posts,  whose 
arrangement  depends  altogether  upon  circumstances.  It  can  only  be  said 
that,  as  they  are  sent  out  to  discover  the  enemy,  they  are  posted  in  pre- 
ference on  the  main  roads,  at  the  junctions  of  roads  on  which  the  enemy 
must  move,  and  in  places  favorable  to  defensive  operations.  If  there  is 
any  place  on  the  flank  of  the  cantonments  offering  advantages  to  the 
enemy,  it  must  be  occupied. 

§  465.  The  posts  should  be  strong  in  proportion  to  the  importance  of 
the  road  on  which  they  are  placed,  their  distance  from  the  cantonments, 
and  the  facility  for  defence  offered  by  the  ground. 

§  466.  The  precautions  to  be  observed  by  these  posts  have  a  twofold 
object:  (a)  their  own  safety;  (Jj)  to  afford  timely  information  of  the 
approach  of  the  enemy.  -^In  this  matter  they  conform  to  what  is  pre- 
scribed in  Part  II.,  Chapter  I.,  Article  6,  of  these  regulations. 

§  467.  The  more  extensive  the  space  over  which  the  outposts  are 
scattered,  the  more  are  they  left  to  their  own  resources,  and  the  more 
must  their  success  depend  upon  the  good  sense  of  the  commander  of  each 
party.  His  only  means  of  obtaining  news  of  the  enemy  are  his  own  eyes, 
sentinels,  vedettes,  patrols,  and  information  from  travellers  and  the  inhabit- 
ants; but  it  depends  upon  his  own  sagacity  to  apply  them  with  the 
greatest  success.  * 

^  468.  To  suffport  the  independent  pickets,  there  may  be  sent  out  main 
guards,  asid  on  the  most  important  points  of  all  the  roads  leading  towards 
the  enemy  main  advanced  detachments. 

§  469.  These  last,  being  intended  not  only  .to  support  the  cavalry  out- 
posts and  parties,  but  also  to  cli'eck  the  enemy  long  enough  to  enable  the 
troops  in  the  cantonments  to  assemble  at  the  designated  rendezvous,  should 


OF   CAVALRY   IN    TIME   OF  WAR.  475 

possess  a  certain  independent  strength ;  therefore  they  should  consist  of 
all  three  arms,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  point. 

§  470.  These  detachments  are  pushed  one  or  two  marches  from  the 
cantonments,  and  occupy  strong  positions,  which  they  may  sometimes 
strengthen  by  field  works. 

§  471.  If  the  intervals  between  them  are  considerable,  smaller  posts 
are  placed  between  them,  to  keep  up  the  communication  and  secure  the 
cantonments  from  being  alarmed  by  light  detachments  of  the  enemy. 

§  472.  The  commander  of  a  main  advanced  detachment  must  make 
himself  well  acquainted  with  the  country  in  the  vicinity,  examine  all  the 
approaches  by  which  the  enfemy  may  arrive,  and  take  all  measures  to 
discover  his  movements  betimes,  as  well  as  to  secure  the  best  possible 
defence  of  the  post. 

§  473,  All  the  outposts  are  subordinate  to  the  commander  of  the  main 
advanced  detachment ;  he  arranges  their  movements,  and  receives  from 
them  all  news  of  the  enemy. 

§  474.  The  main  advanced  detachments  post  camp  and  quarter  guards. 
All  the  men  should  be  in  readiness  for  action ;  therefore  the  horses  are 
saddled  at  the  picket-ropes,  arms  loaded,  accoutrements  close  at  hand, 
and  they  do  not  undress  at  night ;  their  inlying  pickets  keep  their  horses 
bridled  and  accoutrements  on.  The  guns  in  position  should  be  loaded, 
artillery  horses  with  their  collars  on,  the  detachments  close  to  their 
pieces. 

§  475.  All  the  posts  mentioned  in  this  article  guard  themselves  by  the 
various  dispositions  for  outpost  service ;  that  is  to  say,  they  detach  inde- 
pendent posts  or  surround  themselves  by  chains,  according  to  their  dis- 
tance from  the  enemy.  They  send  out  patrols  and  flying  detachments  as 
far  as  the  position  of  the  enemy,  and  also  patrols  to  keep  up  their  com- 
munication with  each  other  and  with  the  cantonments. 

§  476.  In  order  to  embarrass  and  retard  his  approach,  preparations  are 
made  betimes  to  take  up  the  bridges,  destroy  the  causeways,  &c.,  in  the 
direction  of  the  enemy,  so  that  the  advanced  parties  may  accomplish  the 
purpose  immediately  upon  their  retreat  across  them.  But  the  communica- 
tions with  the  cantonments  should  be  perfectly  open ;  therefore  all  obsta- 
cles should  be  removed  betimes. 

§  477.  If  the  commander  of  a  main  advanced  detachment  receives 
news  of  the  enemy,  he  at  once  reports  it  to  the  commander-in-chief,  and, 
if  necessary,  to  the  commanders  of  the  nearest  posts  and  detachments. 
In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  be  unusually  circumspect  with  regard  to 
reports;  and  in  case  of  the  appearance  of  the  enemy,  to  endeavor  to 
ascertain  his  force  and  designs,  in  order  to  avoid  alarming  the  canton- 
ments without  cause. 

§  478.  That  the  commander-in-chief  may  be  constantly  informed  of 


476  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

what  is  going  on  at  the  outposts,  the  commanders  of  the  main  advanced 
detachments  send  reports  to  him  at  the  hours  he  may  specify,  several 
times  a  day,  even  if  nothing  of  importance  has  been  observed. 

§  479.  Signal  stations,  telegraphs,  &c.,  are  established  at  convenient 
points  to  convey  prompt  information  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy. 

§  480.  If  a  main  advanced  detachment  is  attacked,  its  movements  must 
depend  upon  the  orders  it  has  received  from  the  commander-in-chief. 

§  481.  Only  their  wagons  of  the  1st  class,  with  a  par*  of  those  of  the 
2d,  are  with  the  main  advanced  detachments. 

If  the  enemy  advances,  the  wagons  at  once  move  to  the  rear,  so  as  not 
to  impede  the  movements  of  the  troops  if  they  are  forced  to  retreat. 

§  482.  On  account  of  the  fatiguing  nature  of  the  outpost  duty,  the 
troops  should  be  relieved  from  time  to  time,  according  to  th*  judgment 
of  the  commander-in-chief. 

Article  2. 
Precautions  to  he  observed  hy  the  main  hody  in  cantonments. 

§  483.  In  addition  to  the  outposts  and  advanced  detachments  for  guard- 
ing the  cantonments,  certain  measures  of  precaution  are  taken  by  the 
main  body  itself,  especially  in  reference  to  the  rapid  assembly  of  the 
troops  in  the  event  of  an  attack.  These  measures  are  regulated  by  the 
commander-in-chief,  according  to  the  proximity  of  the  enemy  and  the 
degree  of  the  danger. 

§  484.  The  troops  nearest  the  enemy,  being  most  exposed  to  attack, 
are  placed  in  crowded  quarters  to  secure  a  prompt  assembly;  the  others 
may  be  placed  farther  apart  and  in  more  roomy  quarters,  for  the  greater 
facility  of  obtaining  supplies. 

§  485.  In  the  distribution  of  the  troops,  their  position  in  the  canton- 
ments must  correspond,  as  nearly  as  possible,  with  their  position  in  the 
order  of  battle.  The  artillery  is  placed  near  the  points  where  it  is 
destined  to  act,  the  men  and  horses  being  in  the  same  villages  with 
the  parks. 

§  486.  If  it  is  necessary,  inlying  pickets  are  detailed  in  the  villages 
nearest  th^ enemy;  the  state  of  preparation  in  which  they  are  kept  is 
regulated  by  the  corftmander-in-chief  according  to  circumstances.  If 
necessary,  distant  patrols  are*  sent  out  by  these  inlying  pickets. 

§  487.  In  addition  to  the  guards  at  regimental  head-quarters,  and  in 
the  diflferent  parts  of  large  villages,  infantry  guards  are  posted  at  the 
outlets  of  the  villages  on  the  side  of  the  enemy.  These  guards  post 
sentinels,  and  are  ordered  to  prevent  the  passage  of  people  without  the 
countersign  at  night,  or  both  by  day  and  night,  according  to  circumstances. 

§  488.  Signal  stations  and  telegraphs  must  be  arranged  in  the  canton- 
ments.  .  The  signals  to  turn  out  and  form  must  be  explained  to  the  troops. 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  477 

§  489.  That  the  troops  may  meet  the  enemy  in  force  if  he  attacks, 
points  of  rendezvous  must  be  designated  near  the  quarters  for  regiments, 
divisions,  and  other  parties. 

§  490.  In  addition  to  the  general  rendezvous,  there  is  a  special  one  for 
the  troops  in  each  village.  This  is  chosen  outside  of  the  village,  on  the 
side  nearest  the  general  rendezvous;  and  measures  are  taken  betimes 
that  all  the  roads  leading  to  the  rendezvous  may  be  open  and  free  from 
obstacles. 

§  491.  When  the  troops  march  to  the  rendezvous,  only  the  wagons  of 
the  1st  class  accompany  them;  special  rendezvous  are  given  for  the  other 
wagons,  so  that  the  troops  may  not  be  delayed  or  embarrassed  by  them 
either  when  moving  to  the  rendezvous  or  in  case  of  retreat. 

§  492.  For  the  march  of  the  troops  to  the  rendezvous,  roads  are  chosen 
for  each  party,  so  that  they  may  neither  cross  nor  delay  each  other  on 
the  march. 

The  roads  should  be  examined  and  repaired  betimes. 


PART   III. 


OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  OPERATIONS  OF  SPECIAL  DE- 
TACHMENTS. 

CHAPTER  L 

OF   SUDDEN  ATTACKS   UPON   THE   ENEMY. 

§  493.  Sudden  attacks  upon  the  enemy  are  made  with  several  objects: 

1.  To  alarm  his  posts; 

2.  To  capture  one  or  more  of  them;  and, 

3.  To  attack  his  quarters. 

§  494.  For  all  such  enterprises,  cavalry  are  chosen  in  preference. 
Mounted  rifles,  or  dragoons,  uniting  the  defensive  force  of  infantry  with 
the  velocity  of  cavalry,  may  be  of  particular  advantage  in  the  last  two 
eases,  especially  in  passing  to  the  defensive  and  covering  a  retreat,  in  case 
of  a  failure  in  the  enterprise. 

§  495.  The  principal  conditions  of  success  in  all  enterprises  of  this 
kind  maybe  stated  to  be:  1.  Complete  knowledge  of  the  ground,  and 
positive  information  as  to  the  force  and  distribution  of  the  enemy;  2.  A 
concealed  approach  to  the  point  on  which  the  attack  is  to  be  made;  3. 
Rapidity  of  movement,  seconded  by  the  secrecy  and  unexpectedness  of 
the  attack;  and,  4.  To  keep  the  movements  of  the  different  parties  as 
closely  united  as  possible  until  the  last  moment,  so  that  no  one  of  them 


478  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

may  be  delayed  by  unexpected  obstacles,  or  discovered  by  the  enemy  on 
account  of  having  separated  too  soon;  finally,  the  whole  force  must  be 
perfectly  ready  for  action  at  a  moment's  notice. 

§  496.  In  accomplishing  a  concealed  approach  to  the  point  on  which 
the  attack  is  to  be  made,  we  will  be  assisted  by  selecting  the  time  when 
the  enemy  least  expects  an  attack, — that  is,  in  the  night,  or  thick  weather; 
by  choosing  the  route  afibrding  the  best  cover;  by  announcing  an  enter- 
prise of  an  entirely  different  nature;  and,  sometimes,  by  starting  in  the 
opposite  direction,  that  after  having  made  a  considerable  circuit  we  may 
finally  come  out  in  the  real  direction. 

§  497.  Besides  the  general  conditions  specified,  there  are  also  particular 
conditions,  relating  to  each  of  the  cases  specified  in  §  493,  which  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  sections. 

§  498.  Attacks  upon  the  enemy's  outposts  are  undertaken  either  to 
harass  him,  by  obliging  him  to  be  in  constant  readiness  for  action,  or  to 
divert  his  attention,  in  order  to  cover  some  movement  favorable  to  us. 

In  this  and  the  other  cases,  we  should  endeavor  to  extend  the  alarm  over 
^the  greatest  possible  space  with  the  fewest  possible  men. 

For  this,  it  is  advantageous  to  divide  the  party  into  several  sections, 
which,  attacking  at  several  points,  either  simultaneously  or  successively, 
break  through  the  chain,  gallop  up  to  the  main  guards,  and,  having 
alarmed  them,  at  once  fall  back;  if  successful,  they  seize  some  vedettes  or 
even  pickets.  In  such  an  attack  every  section  exerts  itself  to  appear  as 
strong  as  possible;,  they  therefore  scatter,  and  generally  keep  up  a  warm 
firing  and  great  noise. 

§  499.  Besides  harassing  the  enemy,  which  is  the  direct  object  of  these 
attacks,  they  may  procure  the  advantage  of  making  the  enemy  careless  if 
they  are  frequently  repeated,  and  thus  facilitate  the  success  of  more  im- 
portant operations. 

§  500.  In  making  an  attack  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  a  post  of  the 
enemy,  it  is  well  to  divide  the  detachment  detailed  for  the  service  into 
three  parts :  one  moves  to  the  rear  of  the  post,  on  its  road  of  retreat  and 
reinforcement;  another  part  makes  the  direct  attack;  the  third  is  held  in 
reserve  to  support  the  attack,  or,  in  case  of  failure,  cover  the  retreat  of 
the  other  parts.  If  possible,  it  is  well  to  conceal  the  reserve  until  the 
moment  when  the  enemy  is  allured  to  pursue  the  repulsed  party;  then  the 
reserve,  acting  as  an  ambuscade,  endeavors  to  take  the  enemy  in  flank  or 
in  rear,  and  seize  the  abandoned  post. 

§  501.  If  the  post  attacked  is  in  a  village,  the  place  of  assembly  should 
be  ascertained,  and  a  party  of  men  sent  there  to  seize  the  enemy  as  they 
arrive  singly  upon  the  alarm. 

§  502.  In  general,  in  attacking  a  post  with  the  design  of  taking  posses- 
sion of  it,  the  greatest  silence  should  be  observed,  and  the  firing  com- 


OF    CAVALRY.  IN   TIME    OF   WAR.  479 

menced  only  when  the  attacking  party  has  been  already  discovered;  then 
rapidity  and  decision  are  necessary,  so  that  the  enemy  may  not  have  time 
to  recover;  rapidity  and  audacity  in  the  attack  usually  command  success. 

§  503.  If  the  enemy  retreats,  then  on  the  return  march  the  reserve 
usually  marches  in  front  with  the  prisoners;  the  attacking  party  follows; 
the  party  which  moved  on  the  enemy's  rear  acts  as  a  rear  guard. 

§504.  If  the  ground  permits,  the  attack  may  be  combined  with  an 
ambuscade.  For  this  purpose  veteran  troops  are  detailed,  who  are  con- 
cealed with,  the  object  of  falling  suddenly  upon  the  enemy  when  he  has 
been  decoyed  to  their  position.  In  this  case,  success  depends  much  upon 
the  conduct  of  the  troops  who  act  openly,  and  who  should  endeavor  to 
decoy  the  enemy  into  an  imprudent  pursuit,  and  draw  him  into  the 
ambuscade. 

§  505.  The  success  of  the  ambuscade  itself  depends  chiefly  upon  seiz- 
ing the  proper  moment  for  action.  As  a  general  rule,  it  should  not  begin 
to  act  too  soon,  lest  the  enemy  retreat  without  loss.  It  is  best  to  allow 
his  leading  parties  to  pass  so  far  by  that  he  may  be  attacked  in  flank,  or, 
still  better,  in  rear  and  his  retreat  cut  off. 

§  506.  Apart  from  the  object  of  seizing  important  points,  attacks  are 
sometimes  made  upon  the  enemy's  posts  with  the  special  object  of  en- 
couraging the  military  spirit  of  our  own  troops,  and  increasing  their  bold- 
ness and  self-confidence  by  partial  successes. 

In  this  case  prudence  requires  progression  in  the  undertakings;  be- 
ginning with  those  that  require  small  numbers  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
mise full  success,  such  as  capturing  single  vedettes;  then,  upon  success, 
to  undertake  the  capture  of  pickets,  and  finally  to  pass  to  more  important 
enterprises.  Inital  successes  in  a  campaign  are  of  particular  importance; 
they  produce  favorable  impressions  upon  our  own  people,  and  depress  the 
courage  of  the  enemy. 

If  the  enemy  is- at  all  negligent  in  guarding  his  horses,  small  parties 
may  accomplish  important  results  by  stampeding  them  at  night. 

§  507.  The  object  of  attacks  upon  the  cantonments  of  the  enemy  may 
be  to  alarm  him,  to  capture  important  points,  or  to  profit  by  his  disper- 
sion and  attack  in  force  so  as  to  defeat  him  in  detail. 

§  508.  In  the  first  two  cases  the  operations,  although  on  a  larger  scale, 
will  be  nearly  like  those  for  attacking  the  outposts. 

In  the  last  case,  when  the  detachment  making  the  attack  succeeds  in 
carrying  any  important  point,  it  should  be  at  once  supported  by  the  co- 
operation of  other  troops.  Thus,  not  being  delayed  by  the  first  success, 
it  can  at  once  move  on,  and,  taking  advantage  of  the  dispersion  of  the 
enemy,  endeavor  to  capture  his  troops  before  they  are  assembled  and 
ready  for  action,  trusting  to  the  troops  in  rear  of  it  for  a  safe  retreat. 

§  509.  It  is  evident  that  the  strength  of  detachments  detailed  for 

29 


480  REGULATIONS    FOR   FIELD    SERVICE 

sudden  attacks  must  vary  very  much ;  to  capture  a  vedette  3  or  4  men  are 
enough, — the  fewer  the  better.  To  capture  a  picket,  and  generally  to 
attack  the  enemy's  outposts,  parties  of  our  own  advanced  troops  may  be 
employed;  to  attack  posts  of  importance,  detachments  of  considerable 
strength  may  be  sent  out;  while  to  attack  the  cantonments  of  the  enemy, 
the  whole  of  the  main  body  is  sometimes  employed. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF  RECONNOISSANCES. 


§  510.  A  reconnoissance — that  is,  an  ocular  examination — should  pre- 
cede every  military  enterprise.  It  is  always  necessary  to  know  before- 
hand with  what  troops  we  have  to  deal,  and  the  nature  of  the  country  in 
which  the  operation  is  to  be  effected;  this  information  can  be  fully  obtained 
neither  by  interrogation  nor  from  maps;  there  is  no  other  way  than  by  a 
reconnoissance. 

§  511.  Information  obtained  by  a  reconnoissance  is  preferable  to  that 
by  interrogation,  as  being  more  full,  and  generally  obtained  with  less 
delay. 

§  512.  If  the  enemy  is  so  near  that  our  own  chain  can  see  every  thing, 
the  reconnoissance  is  made  under  its  protection.  In  such  a  case  the 
reconnoitring  officer  either  takes  no  escort,  or  a  very  small  one,  and,  for 
greater  secrecy,  leaves  even  that  at  some  distance. 

§  513.  If  the  enemy  is  at  some  distance,  distant  patrols  are  detailed  for 
the  reconnoissance;  the  duty  is,  according  to  its  importance,  intrusted 
either  to  the  commander  of  the  patrol  or  to  a  special  officer  (sometimes 
an  officer  of  the  staff)  to  whom  the  patrol  is  given  as  an  escort. 

§  514.  If  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  close  reconnoissance  of  the  position 
and  arrangements  of  the  enemy,  detachments  of  considerable  strength 
must  be  employed.  Their  composition  must  be  such  that  they  can  drive 
in  the  enemy's  outposts,  break  through  his  lines  to  the  required  distance, 
and  remain  long  enough  to  gain  satisfactory  information.  Such  recon- 
noissances  made  openly  and  in  force  are  called  forced  reconnoissances. 
Their  object  is  sometimes  not  only  to  examine  the  ground  and  the 
arrangements  of  the  enemy,  but  also  to  ascertain  his  strength;  conse- 
quently, to  alarm  him  to  such  a  degree  as  to  make  him  show  the  parties 
at  first  concealed. 

§  515.  To  insure  the  success  of  a  reconnoissance,  whatever  its  object 
may  be,  it  is  necessary  to  attack  suddenly  and  have  a  secure  retreat. 


OF   CAVALRY  IN   TIME   OF   WAR.  481 

§  516.  Small  reconnoitriDg  parties  usually  consist  of  cavalry  alone; 
but  if  a  certain  effort  is  required  to  seize  any  point,  or  if  we  must  leave 
it  occupied  while  we  pass  beyond  it,  then  artiljery  and  infantry  must  be 
added.  Here,  as  in  all  cases  when  it  is  necessary  to  combine  rapidity  of 
movement  with  some  defensive  strength,  mounted  rifles  may  be  advan- 
tageously employed. 

§  517.  The  strength  of  a  reconnoitring  party  can  only  be  determined 
by  its  object  and  the  obstacles  it  may  be  expected  to  encounter,  not  only 
from  the  greater  or  less  force  of  the  enemy,  but  from  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  the  distance  of  the  place  to  be  examined  from  our  main  body, 
the  degree  of  security  of  the  retreat,  &c.  If  the  affair  consists  merely 
in  driving  in  an  independent  picket  and  holding  its  position  long  enough 
to  make  an  examination,  a  strong  patrol  will  be  sufficient }  but  if  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  a  large  portion  of  the  enemy's  position,  or  to  ascer- 
tain his  strength,  a  considerable  force  may  be  required.  But  every  thing 
stated  in  this  chapter  relates  more  particularly  to  reconnoissances  made 
with  small  detachments. 

§  518.  Whatever  may  be  the  object  of  the  reconnoissance  and  the 
composition  of  the  detachment,  the  first  thing  is  to  determine  the  point 
from  which  the  examination  can  be  best  made,  and  the  principal  effort 
must  be  directed  to  the  occupation  of  this  point.  This  effort  should  not 
be  limited  to  a  direct  attack,  but  should  be  aided  by  several  simultaneous 
attacks  upon  other  points,  in  order  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  enemy, 
divide  his  force,  and  throw  him  into  irresolution.  Such  operations  will 
be  particularly  useful  if  the  object  is  to  ascertain  the  strength  of  the 
enemy,  for  the  partial  attacks  force  him  to  show  his  whole  force. 

§  519.  Having  occupied  the  point  from  which  the  reconnoissance  is  to 
be  made,  we  should  not  be  enticed  into  a  pursuit  of  the  beaten  enemy, 
but  proceed  at  once  to  strengthen  ourselves  in  the  position ;  that  is,  we 
should  take  measures  for  meeting  the  enemy  with- advantage  when  he 
returns  to  the  attack :  with  this  view,  the  safety  of  the  flanks  must  be 
particularly  attended  to,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  endangering  the 
retreat  of  the  detachment  by  turning  the  position. 

§  520.  If  the  enemy  makes  a  resolute  attack  before  the  reconnoissance 
is  completed,  the  degree  of  defence  must  depend  upon  the  importance  of 
the  object,  that  the  sacrifice  may  be  in  proportion.  A  retreat  commenced 
at  the  wrong  time  may  encounter  peculiar  difficulty :  to  commence  the 
retreat  before  the  completion  of  the  reconnoissance,  is  to  abandon  the 
work  when  nearly  finished ;  remaining  too  long  in  position  may  expose  us 
to  useless  loss.  Therefore,  if  the  object  is  to  ascertain  the  strength  of  the 
enemy,  the  retreat  should  be  commenced  at  once,  because  the  enemy  will 
soon  recover  from  the  first  attack  and  gain  the  means  of  assuming  the 
offensive. 


482  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 

§  521.  When  a  party  has  made  a  reconnoissance,  its  arrangements 
during  the  retreat  present  nothing  unusual;  it  should  carefully  guard 
its  flanks  by  strong  parties  or  patrols,  and  always  expect  to  be  violently 
attacked. 

§  522.  This  is  particularly  to  be  anticipated  when  the  object  was  to 
ascertain  the  strength  of  the  enemy,  and  the  retreat  was  commenced  late. 
In  such  cases,  prudence  demands  that  we  should  place,  beforehand,  on 
the  road  of  retreat,  separate  supports  of  sufficient  strength  to  stop  the 
pursuit  and  cover  the  retreat  of  the  party. 

§  523.  When  the  supports  of  the  reconnoitring  party  are  shown,  and 
the  enemy  is  near,  it  is  prudent  to  have  a  considerable  part,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  the  main  body  ready  for  action.  For  it  may  easily  happen  that 
the  enemy,  having  been  alarmed  by  the  reconnoissance,  and  afterwards 
excited  by  its  repulse  and  pursuit,  may  "change  his  operations  into  a  gene- 
ral attack,  especially  if  he  observes  the  slightest  negligence  on  our  part ; 
in  this  case,  all  the  advantage  would  be  on  his  side. 

Remark. — There  are  two  kinds  of  reconnoissances :  those  to  ascertain 
the  general  nature  of  the  country,  position  and  movements  of  the  enemy, 
&c.  ]  and  those  immediately  preceding  an  action.  The  first  should  be 
made  with  extreme  minuteness,  and  as  much  time  given  to  them  as  pos- 
sible ;  they  may  be  well  done  by  a  man  with  but  little  genius  and  of  a 
careful,  business  turn  of  mind.  The  second  require  the  highest  order  of 
military  genius,  a  rapid  and  unerring  coup-d'odl,  an  accurate  and  instinct- 
ive knowledge  of  the  tactics  of  all  arms;  they  must  be  made  with 
extreme  rapidity,  and  acted  upon  at  once. 

There  have  been  innumerable  instances  in  military  history,  and  not  a 
few  in  our  own,  where,  on  the  one  hand,  invaluable  time  and  opportunity 
have  been  lost  by  the  system  of  slow  and  minute  reconnoissances  in  front 
of  the  enemy, — obtaining  the  horizontal  curves  of  a  field  of  battle ;  on 
the  other  hand,  pluBging  headlong  into  action  without  a  proper  knowledge 
of  the  ground. 

The  important  points  are :  the  strength  of  the  enemy,  the  key-points 
of  his  position,  the  nature  of  the  ground  between  your  own  position  and 
his ;  that  is,  is  it  passable,  and  for  what  arms  ?  Let  the  subordinate 
commanders  attend  to  minor  obstacles.  As  soon  as  the  proper  information 
is  obtained  on  these  points,  act.  The  mere  moral  efi"ect  of  a  rapid  and 
unhesitating  movement  is  very  great.  During  the  ordinary  marches  and 
intervals  of  rest,  the  cavalry  and  staff  officers  should  collect  every  possible 
item  of  information ;  nothing  is  too  trifling  to  be  worth  knowing ;  if  they 
have  done  their  duty  properly,  no  general  need  hesitate  more  than  a  few 
minutes  when  he  finds  himself  in  presence  of  the  enemy. 


OF   CAVALRY   IN   TIME   OF   WAR.  483 


CHAPTER  m. 

OF  CONVOYS. 

Article  1. 

The  defence  of  convoys. 

§  524.  The  rules  for  escorting  trains,  and  the  arrangements  for  securing 
them  against  attack,  were  explained  in  Part  I.,  Chapter  I.,  Article  5 ;  in 
the  present  article  will  be  explained  the  manner  of  defending  the  convoy 
when  attacked.  . 

§  525.  The  immediate  defence  of  a  very  large  train  is,  if  not  wholly 
impossible,  at  least  very  difficult;  for  it  involves  an  injurious  division  of 
force. 

§  526.  The  following  rules  are  laid  down  as  the  most  important :  to 
keep  the  force  as  much  concentrated  as  possible,  in  order  to  act  offensively, 
leaving  with  the  wagons  only  the  number  of  men  absolutely  necessary ; 
if  this  is  impossible,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the  enemy  away 
from  the  train  as  long  as  possible. 

§  527.  In  accordance  with  this,  on  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  if  the 
force  of  the  escort  is  at  all  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  attacking  party, 
it  is  best  to  move  out  to  meet  the  enemy  with  the  greater  part  of  the 
escort,  overthrow  him,  and  clear  the  country  in  the  direction  of  the  march 
of  the  train.  Even  if  the  escort  is  much  weaker  than  the  enemy,  it 
should  move  out  to  meet  him,  but  must  limit  its  subsequent  operations  to 
the  defensive,  endeavoring  to  keep  the  enemy  away  from  the  train  long 
enough  for  it  to  gain  a  good  defensive  position. 

§  528.  In  the  latter  case,  the  train  is,  if  possible,  parked  in  square,  or 
corralled.  The  escort,  having  kept  off  the  enemy  long  enough  to  permit 
this,  retreats  upon  the  train ;  the  defence,  facilitated  by  the  diminution 
of  the  space  occupied,  is  now  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  general 
rules  for  the  defence  of  the  ground  occupied,  taking  advantage  of  the 
obstacle  presented  by  the  wagons. 

§  529.  If  the  attack  is  altogether  by  surprise,  and  is  made  on  several 
points  at  once,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  collect  all  the  wagons  in  one 
place,  then  each  section  of  the  train  should  be  formed  into  a  separate 
column,  square,  or  corral. 

§  530.  Any  wagons  loaded  with  powder  or  combustibles  should  be 
placed  by  themselves  inside  the  square,  or  else  formed  into  a  separate 
park  outside,  placing  them  under  cover  of  some  defensible  object. 

§  531.  In  these  cases,  it  is  very  necessary  to  watch  the  movements  of 


484  REGULATIONS    FOR    FIELD   SERVICE 

the  wagons,  which  should  move  to  their  places  at  such  a  gait  as  to  render 
confusion  impossible. 

Remarks. — At  the  commencement  of  the  expedition,  the  commander 
of  the  convoy  should  issue  detailed  instructions  as  to  the  manner  of 
forming  square  or  corral  in  case  of  attack.  In  square,  the  hind  wheels 
of  the  wagons  should  be  towards  the  exterior,  the  wagons  should  be  fast- 
ened together  by  the  lock-chains,  and  in  all  cases  intervals  should  be  left 
for  the  passage  of  the  escort  at  proper  points;  these  intervals  should 
be  closed  by  chevaux-de-frise,  chains,  &c. 

The  train  is  most  readily  corralled  when  moving  in  two  columns  by 
file  and  abreast.  The  leading  wagons  halt  at  a  suitable  distance  apart, 
the  others  oblique  outwards,  each  wagon  moving  to  the  front  as  soon  as  it 
clears  the  wagon  next  in  front  of  it;  each  wagon  then  halts  with  its 
inner  hind  wheel  close  to  the  outer  fore  wheel  of  the  wagon  which  pre- 
ceded it  in  the  column,  and  these  wheels  are  chained  together;  any 
desirable  shape  may  be  given  to  the  corral  by  throwing  the  pole  of  each 
successive  wagon  more  or  less  inward. 

§  532.  If  there  is  a  reasonable  probability  of  saving  the  train  by  the 
operation,  it  is  best  to  concentrate  it  in  a  favorable  position,  and  await 
assistance;  if  the  escort  is  altogether  inferior  in  force,  it  may  be  best  to 
save  the  train  by  a  retreat. 

§  533.  When  the  wagons  are  formed  in  column,  square,  or  corral,  their 
defence  devolves  upon  the  infantry  portion  of  the  escort;  the  cavalry, 
remaining  outside  the  park,  can  only  co-operate  by  endeavoring  to  take 
the  enemy  in  flank j  &c. 

§  534.  The  enemy  may  send  out  small  detachments  with  the  object  of 
alarming  the  convoy  and  delaying  its  march  by  forcing  it  to  halt  and  form. 
Such  parties  should  be  driven  off  by  detachments  from  the  escort,  with- 
out assembling  the  train,  which  should  be  parked  only  when  the  enemy 
attacks  decisively  and  in  considerable  force.  Therefore  patrols  should  be 
sent  out  as  far  as  possible,  to  discover  the  approach  of  the  enemy  and 
ascertain  his  force  betimes. 

§  585.  Having  repulsed  the  enemy,  the  escort  must  not  be  induced  to 
pursue  him  too  far  from  the  wagons;  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  measures 
to  allow  the  train  to  pursue  its  march. 

§  536.  If  the  convoy  is  attacked  when  halted,  the  defence  is  conducted 
as  already  prescribed ;  but  in  this  case  the  defence  is  easier,  because  the 
wagons  are  already  formed  and  the  escort  in  position.  Even  here  it  is 
best  to  try  to  keep  the  enemy  at  a  distance,  or,  if  the  forces  are  at  all 
equal,  to  defeat  him,  and  then  return  to  the  train. 

§  537.  The  selection  of  the  positions  for  rests  and  camps  will  have  a 
great  influence  upon  the  success  of  the  defence  of  the  convoy.  In  the 
selection,  preference  will  be  given  to  those  places  which  are  favorable  to 


OF    CAVALRY    IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  485 

the  action  of  the  troops  composing  the  escort,  or  the  greater  part  of  it. 
For  parking  the  train,  places  must  be  chosen' at  a  distance  from  objects 
which  would  conceal  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  and  enable  him  to  hold 
a  position  dangerously  near;  on  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  surrounded 
by  objects  preventing  easy  access,  but  not  interfering  with  observation. 

§  538.  At  the  park,  the  troops  of  the  escort  are  posted  as  follows :  the 
infantry  and  artillery  bivouac  inside  the  square;  the  first  places  its  parties 
along  the  faces  they  are  respectively  detailed  to  defend,  and  posts  guards 
and  a  chain  of  sentinels  around  the  park ;  the  guns  are  placed  at  the 
angles,  and  generally  at  the  weakest  points,  or  where  it  is  easiest  to  sweep 
the  ground  in  front. 

The  cavalry,  bivouacked  outside  the  park,  places  outposts  and  sends  out 
patrols  according  to  the  rules  for  outpost  service. 

The  draught-animals  should  be  collected  in  the  centre,  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  defence  of  the  sides. 

Article  2. 
The  attack  of  convoys. 

§  539.  An  attack  upon  a  convoy  may  be  intended  either  to  capture  it, 
to  destroy  it,  or  merely  to  alarm  and  delay  it. 

Independently  of  other  considerations,  the  composition  and  force  of  the 
attacking  party  must  depend  upon  the  object  in  view. 

§  540.  The  general  conditions  for  success  in  the  attack  of  convoys  are 
usually  the  same  as  for  sudden  attacks.  The  most  favorable  moment  for 
attacking  a  convoy  is  when  it  is  passing  a  defile,  crossing  hills,  streams,  &c. 

§  541.  The  main  eflbrt  of  the  attack  should  be  directed  against  the 
escort,  especially  if  it  is  marching  in  one  body,  not  only  to  occupy  its 
attention,  but  also  to  separate  it  from  the  train  if  possible.  At  the  same 
time,  small  parties  should  move  upon  different  parts  of  the  train,  to  pre- 
vent it  from  parking,  carry  it  off,  or  destroy  the  wagons.  A  part  of  the 
troops  must  be  held  in  reserve. 

§  542.  If  the  train  succeeds  in  parking,  the  operations  against  it  become 
difficult  for  cavalry  alone ;  in  that  case,  the  infantry  and  artillery  must 
act. 

§  543.  If  the  train  or  •  a  part  of  it  is  captured,  and  it  is  possible  to 
carry  it  oflf,  the  operations  of  the  detachment  change ;  it  then  escorts  the 
wagons,  as  directed  in  Part  I.,  Chapter  I.,  Article  5,  and  acts  as  is  laid 
down  in  the  preceding  article. 

§  544.  When  the  attacking  detachment  is  sent  out  merely  to  delay  and 
annoy  the  convoy,  it  passes  in  advance  of  it,  destroys  the  roads,  ruins  the 
crossings  of  streams,  and  alarms  the  convoy  by  partial  attacks,  particu- 
larly during  the  night  and  at  well-known  places. 


486  REGULATIONS   FOR   FIELD   SERVICE 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  FORAGING,  AND  ATTACKS  UPON  FORAGERS. 

Article  1. 
Of  foraging. 

§  545.  Under  the  head  of  foraging  are  included  the  operations  of 
parties  detailed  to  obtain  not  only  forage,  but  supplies  of  all  kinds. 

§  546.  Foraging  is  eflfected  sometimes  where  there  is  no  danger  from  the 
enemy,  sometimes  in  places  where  an  attack  may  be  expected,  and,  in  cases 
of  extreme  necessity,  sometimes  in  places  actually  occupied  by  the  enemy. 
The  manner  of  conducting  the  operation  is  Somewhat  different  in  the 
three  cases. 

Remark. — If  the  enemy  is  so  near  that  an  attack  may  be  expected,  the 
artillery  send  out  no  foragers,  so  as  not  to  break  up  the  detachments  with 
the  guns  and  interfere  with  their  readiness  for  action.  In  such  cases, 
if  it  is  not  possible  to  supply  the  batteries  from  the  temporary  magazines, 
their  foraging  is  imposed  upon  the  cavalry. 

§  547.  Foraging  out  of  all  danger  from  the  enemy  is  effected  as  fol- 
lows :  a  space  for  foraging  is  assigned  to  each  party  of  the  troops,  and,  if 
it  is  expected  to  remain  some  time  in  the  same  position,  the  villages  are 
occupied  by  safeguards  sent  by  the  party  in  whose  ground  each  falls. 
The'foraging  is  commenced  at  the  places  nearest  the  enemy,  falling  back, 
as  he  approaches,  to  those  immediately  in  our  front,  and  finally  to  those 
in  rear. 

§  548.  For  foraging,  parties  of  men,  with  the  proper  number  of  officers, 
are  detailed,  and  the  necessary  wagons  sent  with  them ;  if  the  forage  is 
to  be  packed  on  the  troop  horses,  this  is  done  as  shown  in  figs.  11, 12.  If 
the  foraging  is  to  be  effected  in  villages,  severe  measures  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  disorder  and  plundering  on  the  part  of  the  foragers. 

§  549.  In  this  case,  it  is  best  not  to  take  the  party  into  the  village, 
but  to  send  for  the  chief  persons  and  stipulate  with  them  that  the  inhabit- 
ants shall  bring  the  required  forage  and  other  stores  out  to  the  troops. 
If  the  inhabitants  do  not  promptly  comply  with  this  moderate  command, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  the  party  in. 

§  550.  In  this  event,  all  possible  means  must  be  taken  to  prevent  dis- 
order, as,  for  instance  : 

1.  -A  certain  number  of  houses  are  assigned  to  each  company,  so  that 
the  commander  of  the  detachment  may  hold  each  company  responsible  for 
the  disorders  committed  within  its  limits.  ^ 


OF   CAVALRY  IN   TIME   OF   WAR. 


487 


2.  Guards  are  posted  and  patrols  sent  out,  who  arrest  any  foragers 
guilty  of  disorder. 

3.  If  the  form  of  the  village  permits,  a  part  of  the  detachment  remains 
at  the  centre  to  pack  the  horses  and  load  the  wagons  as  fast  as  the  other 
men  bring  the  forage  from  the  houses. 

§  551.  In  places  where  an  attack  may  be  expected,  the  foraging  is  con- 
ducted as  follows :  Either  fatigue  parties  are  sent  with  wagons,  or  parties 
of  cavalry  with  their  own  horses ;  in  both  cases  a  special  escort  is  added 
for  the  protection  of  the  foragers. 

§  552.  In  all  cases,  the  strength  of  the  escort  depends  upon  the  degree 
of  danger,  the  space  over  which  the  foraging  is  to  extend,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  enemy. 

§  553.  During  the  march  of  foragers  to  and  from  the  foraging-ground, 
if  they  consist  of  a  fatigue  party  with  wagons,  an  escort  is  added,  which 
ax3ts  in  conformity  with  the  rules  for  escorting  convoys. 


Fig.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


If  the  foragers  consist  only  of  cavalry  with  their  own  horses,  then  on 
the  outward  march  they  move  in  one  body,  observing  the  precautions 
prescribed  for  movements  near  the  enemy ;  on  the  return  march,  if  the 
horses  of  the  foragers  are  packed  and  led,  the  detachment  acting  as  escort 
should  not  pack  more  than  40  pounds  on  their  horses,  so  that  the  load 
may  not  prevent  them  from  acting  against  the  enemy. 

Remarks. — Hay  is  packed  as  shown  in  figs.  11,  12. 

One  hundred  and  twelve  pounds  may  be  packed  on  a  horse,  as  shown 
in  fig.  11,  and  the  horse  must  be  led;  56  pounds  are  packed  as  'shown 
in  fig.  12,  in  two  trusses. 

§  554.  Sometimes  the  escort,  or  a  part  of  it,  may  be  sent  out  early  to 


488  REGULATIONS   FOR    FIELD    SERVICE 

the  foraging-ground,  to  take  measures  for  the  security  of  the  foragers 
before  they  arrive. 

§  555.  For  the  safety  of  the  foragers  when  at  their  work,  the  escort  is 
divided  into  two  or  three  parts,  according  to  circumstances :  one  part 
places  a  chain  of  outposts  and  sends  out  patrols,  to  guard  the  whole 
ground ;  another  furnishes  the  supports  of  the  outposts,  and  if  there  are 
infantry  or  mounted  rifles  with  it  they  occupy  the  points  which  cover  the 
approaches;  the  third  part  is  placed  in  reserve  near  the  centre  of  the 
ground,  that  it  may  easily  reach  any  point  attacked. 

§  556.  If  the  enemy  attacks  while  the  foraging  is  going  on,  the  escort 
should  go  to  meet  him  or  defend  itself  in  position,  endeavoring  to  stop 
him  until  the  foragers  have  finished  their  work,  and  are  drawn  out  on  the 
road  for  their  return  march  ;  then  the  escort  commences  its  retreat,  acting 
as  a  rear  guard,  and  endeavoring  to  keep  the  enemy  as  far  from  the 
foragers  as  possible.  If  it  is  impossible  to  hold  the  enemy  in  check  long 
enough  to  finish  the  work,  they  should  at  least  send  forward  and  protect 
all  the  foragers  who  have  packed  their  horses  or  loaded  their  wagons ; 
the  rest  join  the  escort.  If  there  is  a  probability  of  driving  off  the  enemy 
by  uniting  all  the  foragers  to  the  escort,  it  is  best  to  abandon  the  forage 
already  packed,  and  to  begin  foraging  anew  after  having  repulsed  the 
enemy.  It  is  permitted  to  abandon  the  forage  entirely  only  in  extreme 
urgency,  when  there  is  absolutely  no  other  way  of  saving  the  foragers. 

§  557.  If  the  enemy  is  repulsed,  we  must  not  be  induced  to  pursue  him 
any  farther  than  enough  to  prevent  a  renewal  of  the  attack,  but  must 
endeavor  to  complete  the  foraging. 

§  558.  The  foraging  must  not  be  extended  over  any  ground  not  guarded 
by  the  escort.  If  the  escort  is  too  weak  to  cover  the  whole  space  desig- 
nated for  foraging,  the  ground  is  divided  into  parts,  and  the  foraging 
effected  in  the  different  portions  successively. 

§  559.  If  the  foragers  are  attacked  on  their  return  march,  the  defence 
is  conducted  as  prescribed  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

§  560.  If  the  foraging-ground  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
camp,  it  will  be  a  proper  precaution  to  post  a  special  detachment  in  sup- 
port half-way. 

§  561.  Foraging  in  places  occupied  by  the  enemy  is  undertaken  only 
upon  the  entire  exhaustion  of  the  ground  occupied  by  our  own  troops. 
Such  foraging  is  covered  by  offensive  operations,  so  that,  having  driven 
in  the  enemy's  advanced  troops  or  other  parties,  we  niay  rapidly  seize  all 
the  supplies  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity.     This  is  called  forced  foraz/inff. 

§  562.  The  strength  and  composition  of  a  detachment  for  forced 
foragitg  must  be  such  that  it  can  overwhelm  the  enemy's  troops,  and 
remain  long  enough  in  position  to  enable  the  accompanying  detachment 
of  foragers  to  complete  their  work  and  retreat  out  of  danger. 


OF    CAVALRY   IN    TIME    OF    WAR.  489 

§  563.  The  main  conditions  of  success  in  such  an  enterprise  are  sud- 
denness, rapidity,  and  determination  in  the  attack,  promptness  in  the 
work  of  the  foragers,  and  tenacity  in  holding  the  positions  taken  from  the 
enemy  as  long  as  necessary.  Success  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  partial 
attacks  made  upon  diflFerent  points  of  the  enemy's  position  while  the 
foraging  is  going  on. 

Article  2. 
Of  attacks  upon  foragers. 

§  564.  Attacks  upon  foragers  should  be  sudden  and  rapid,  in  order,  by 
not  giving  the  escort  time  to  defend  the  points  attacked,  to  produce  con- 
fusion among  the  foragers  and  thus  prevent  them  from  working. 

§  565.  The  approach  of  the  attacking  party  should  be  concealed,  rapid, 
and  compact ;  that  is,  it  should  not  send  out  parties  to  any  great  distance 
in  front  or  on  the  flanks,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  should  not  divide  its  force 
prematurely,  but  only  the  moment  before  the  attack. 

§  566.  The  force  of  a  detachment  sent  to  attack  foragers  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  object  of  the  attack ;  that  is,  whether  it  is  designed  to 
capture  the  foragers,  or  only  to  prevent  them  from  foraging  by  alarming 
them,  or  to  prevent  them  from  carrying  off  forage  already  packed. 

§  567.  It  is  in  all  cases  advantageous  to  begin  with  several  simulta- 
neous false  attacks  by  small  parties,  to  perplex  the  enemy  and  oblige  him 
to  divide  the  escort  j  then  to  direct  the  main  party  of  the  detachment 
upon  the  principal  point  of  the  enemy's  arrangements,  overthrow  his 
weakened  escort,  and  penetrate  to  the  road  of  retreat,  so  as  either  to  cut 
off  and  destroy  a  part  of  the  escort  and  foragers,  or  to  force  them  to 
abandon  their  work  and  fly,  by  threatening  to  cut  them  off. 

§  568.  If  from  the  disproportion  of  force  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  the 
foraging  entirely,  the  attacking  party  confines  itself  to  delaying  the  work : 
its  operations,  therefore,  should  consist  in  partial  attacks  upon  several 
points,  in  order  to  alarm  and  disperse  the  foragers  by  breaking  through 
the  outposts  at  several  points.  Upon  meeting  a  considerable  force  of  the 
enemy,  these  attacking  parties  should  at  once  retreat,  and  renew  the  attack 
in  a  different  place.  In  such  operations  a  portion  of  the  attacking  detach- 
ment should  be  kept  together  and  held  in  reserve,  as  a  support  and 
rallying-point  for  the  small  parties. 

§  569.  If  they  do  not  succeed  in  preventing  the  foraging,  they  may 
try  to  attack  the  foragers  on  the  return  march;  observing  in  this  case 
the  rules  laid  down  in  the  preceding  chapter  for  attacks  upon  convoys. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Advanced  guards,  United  States  cavalry,  in  time  of  war 416,  425 

Arms,  &c.,  of  Austrian  cavalry 322 

of  French  cavalry 343 

of  Prussian  cavalry 302 

infantry ^. 76 

of  Russian  cavalry 202 

infantry 292 

militia 294 

of  Sardinian  infantry 83 

Army,  Russian,  composition 86 

Army  corps,  Russian -. 92 

Artel,  Russian 110 

Artillerv.  Russian 91 

AUSTRIAN  CAVALRY : 

Arms,  &c 322 

Clothing 327 

Cooking-utensils , 328 

Daily  duty  in  garrison 332 

Duties  of- officers 333 

Equitation,  school  of,  at  Vienna 335 

Forage 330 

Horses 329 

Horse  equipments 323 

Marches,  &c 334 

Organization 314 

Quarters 333 

Rations 328 

Stables 330 

Swimming 319 

Tactics,  &c 315 

Austrian  engineer  troops 48 

infantry 63 

pioneers 49 

491 


492  INDEX. 

B. 

PAGE 

Battalion,  school  of,  Russian  infantry 233 

Berlin,  veterinary  school  at 312 

Bivouacs  of  Prussian  cavalry 310 

Bivouacs  of  Russian  infantry 282 

Bridges,  military,  Prussian 46 

Russian 37 


C. 

Camps,  United  States  cavalry,  in  time  of  war 432,  472 

Camp  equipage,  Sardinian  infantry 84 

Cantonments,  United  States  cavalry,  in  time  of  war 474 

Caucasus,  army  of  the 99 

Cavalry,  Austrian 314 

English 377 

French 340 

Prussian 295 

Russian 90,  116,  200 

Sardinian 384 

United  States • 386 

Clothing  of  Austrian  cavalry 327 

Colonies,  military,  of  Russia 105 

Commander-in-chief,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 412 

Commander  of  the  advanced  guard,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 416 

of  the  rear  guard,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 418 

Company,  school  of,  Russian  infantry 222 

Convoys,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 483 

Cooking-utensils  of  Austrian  cavalry 328 

of  Sardinian  infantry ^ 84 

Cossacks,  &c 101,  207 

Crimean  War , », 9 


D. 

Defence  of  trains,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 406 

Detachments,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 474 

advanced,  flank  and  rear,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 419 

Dragoons,  &c.,  Russian 207 

Duties  of  Austrian  cavalry  officers,  &c 333 

E. 

Emperor  of  Russia,  grand  staff  of. 86 

Encampments  of  Russian  infantry 269 

Engineer  troops,  Austrian 48 


INDEX.  493 

PAGB 

Engineer  troops,  English 55 

French 55 

Prussian 45 

Kussian 36,  92 

ENGLISH  CAVALRY : 

Organization 377 

Horse  equipments 378 

Tactics,  &c 377 

Transportation  by  sea 379 

Equipments,  horse,  Austrian  cavalry 323 

English  cavalry 378 

French  cavalry 343 

Prussian  cavalry 301 

Russian  cavalry \ 200 

Equitation,  Austrian  school  of,  at  Vienna 335 

Prussian  school  of,  at  Schwedt ».  311 

Evolutions  of  the  line,  Russian  cavalry 169 

Russian  infantry 234 

F. 

Farriers,  school  of,  at  Saumur 372 

Field  service  of  French  cavalry 355 

of  Prussian  cavalry 308 

infantry 81 

of  Russian  cavalrj' 206 

of  United  States  cavalry,  in  war,  regulations  for 395 

Field  works,  Russian 39 

Flank  march,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 401 

Forage  of  Austrian  cavalry 330 

of  French  cavalry 350 

of  Prussian  cavalry 305 

Foragers,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 489 

Foraging,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 486 

FRENCH  CAVALRY : 

Arms,  &c 343 

Field  service 355 

Forage 350 

Horse  equipments ." 343 

Horses 347 

Organization 340 

Quarters 350 

Rations • 348 

Stables 351 

Stable-duty 354 

Tactics 342 

Transportation  by  sea 359 

Uniform 347 


494  INDEX. 

PAGE 

French  engineer  troops 55 

infantry 57 


G. 

Garrison,  daily  duty  in,  of  Austrian  cavalry 332 

Generals,  posts  of,  &c.,  Russian  cavalry 170 

General  columns,  Russian  cavalry 196 

Russian  infantry 234 

Guards,  Russian  infantry 278 


H. 

Halts  of  troops.  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 408 

Horse  equipments  of  Austrian  cavalry 323 

*  of  English  cavalry 378 

of  French  cavalry 343 

of  Prussian  cavalry 301 

of  Russian  cavalry.. 200 

Horses,  Austrian 329 

French 347 

Prussian 303 

Russian 204 

purchase  of,  for  United  States  cavalry 392 

Hospitals,  Russian 109 

I. 

Independent  pickets,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 446 

Infantry,  Austrian 63 

French 57 

Prussian 69 

Russian 89,  211 

Sardinian , 82 

Inspections  of  Russian  army 108 

Irregular  troops,  Russian 101 

L. 

Lancers,  &g.,  Russian 207 


M. 

Main  body.  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 430,  472 

guard.  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 442 

Marches,  &c.,  of  Austrian  cavalry 334 

Marches  of  troops,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 395 

t 


INDEX.  495 

VKQZ 

Military  schools,  Russian 101 

Militia,  Russian 293 

Mines,  Russian 44 

Model  regiments,  Russian 100 

0. 

Order  of  battle,  Russian  cavalry  regiment 163 

Orders  of  battle,  Russian  cavalry 187 

of  battle,  Russian  infantry 234 

of  reserve,  Russian  infantry 234 

Organization  of  Austrian  cavalry 314 

of  English  cavalry 377 

of  French  cavalry 340 

of  Prussian  cavalry 295 

infantry .-. 69 

of  Russian  cavalry 90 

infantry 89 

of  Sardinian  cavalry 384 

infantry 82 

Outposts,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 432,  452,  453,  459,  461,  462 

P. 

Patrols,  United  States  cavalry,  in  -war 421,  455 

Pay  of  Russian  army Ill 

Pickets,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 438 

Pickets,  independent.  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 446 

Pioneers,  Austrian 49 

Platoon,  school  of,  Russian  cavaky 136 

Pontons,  leather,  of  Russian  mounted  engineer  troops 38 

PRUSSIAN  CAVALRY: 

Arms,  &c 302 

Bivouacs 310 

Equitation,  school  of,  at  Schwedt 311 

Field  service 308 

Forage 305 

Horse  equipments 301 

Horses 303 

Organization 295 

Quarters 305 

Rations 304 

Skirmishers 299 

Stables 306 

Stable-duty 307 

Tactics,  &c '297 

Uniform 303 

Prussian  engineer  troops 45 

infantry,  arms,  &c 76 

30 


496  INDEX. 

PAGB 

Prussian  infantry,  Field  service 81 

Organization 69 

Quarters ; 80 

Rations 80 

Tactics,  &c 74 

Uniform 77 


Quarters  of  Austrian  cavalry 333 

of  French  cavalry .' 350 

of  Prussian  cavalry 305 

infantry , 80 

of  Russian  army 109 


R. 

Rations  of  Austrian  cavalry  soldiers 328 

of  French  cavalry  soldiers 348 

of  Prussian  cavalry  soldiers 304 

infantry 80 

of  Russian  army 110 

Rear  guard.  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 418,  430 

Reconnoissances,  United  States  cavalry,  in  v^^ar 480 

Recruit,  school  of,  Russian  cavalry 116 

Recruiting,  &c.,  of  Russian  army 102 

Regiment,  school  of,  Russian  cavalry ; 158 

RegulMions  for  field  service  of  United  States  cavalry  in  war 395 

Reserve,  orders  of,  &c.,  Russian  infantry 234 

Reserve  troops  of  the  grand  army  of  Russia 98 

Reviews,  Russian  cavalry 168 

Riding-houses,  Russian 205 

Rules  for  forming  in  order  of  battle,  Russian  cavalry 108 

RUSSIAN  ARMY : 

Composition 86 

Inspections 108 

Irregular  troops 101 

Pay Ill 

Quarters 109 

Rations 110 

Recruiting,  &c 102 

Reserve  troops 98 

Staff,  general 88 

Uniform 105 

RUSSIAN  CAVALRY: 

Arms,  &c 202 

Equipment,  &c 200 


INDEX.  49 


RUSSIAN  QANMjKY:— Continued.  pa;  5 

Evolutions  of  the  line 169 

Field  service 206 

Generals,  posts  of,  &c 170 

General  columns , 196 

Horses 204 

Manage  riding 118 

Order  of  battle  for  a  regiment 163 

Orders  of  battle 187 

Organization 90 

Platoon,  school  of  the 136 

Recruit,  school  of  the 116 

Regiment,  school  of  the 158 

Reviews 168 

Rules  for  forming  in  order  of  battle 198 

Sabre  exercise 124 

Skirmishers 152 

Squadron,  school  of  the 140 

Stables 305 

Tactics,  &o 116 

Uniform 107 

Russian  emperor,  grand  staff  of. 86 

engineer  troops 36,  92 

RUSSIAN  INFANTRY : 

Arms,  &c 292 

Battalion,  school  of  the 233 

Bivouacs 282 

Company,  school  of  the 222 

Encampments. 269 

Evolutions  of  the  line 234 

General  columns 234 

Guards 278 

Orders  of  battle ".....  234 

Orders  of  reserve 234 

Organization 89 

Skirmishers 223 

Tactics,  &c 211 

Uniform 107 

S. 

Sabre  exercise,  Russian 124 

Saps,  Prussian 46 

Sardinian  cavalry 384 

infantry,  Arms,  &c 83 

Camp  equipage 84 

Cooking-utensils 84 

Organization 82 

Uniform 83 


498  INDEX. 


PAGE 


Saumur,  cavalry  school  at 364 

Schools,  company  and  battalion,  of  Russian  engineer  troops 36 

Schwedt,  school  of  equitation  at 311 

Siege  materials,  Russian 41 

Siege  operations,  Russian 42 

Skirmishers  of  Prussian  cavalry 299 

of  Russian  cavalry 152 

of  Russian  infantry 223 

Squadron,  school  of,  Russian  cavalry 140 

Stables,  Austrian 330 

French 351 

Stable-duty  of  French  cavalry 354 

Stables,  Prussian 306 

Stable-duty  of  Prussian  cavalry 307 

Stables,  Russian 205 

Staff,  general,  Russian  army 88 

Staff,  grand,  of  the  Russian  emperor 86 

Standards  and  their  escort,  Russian  cavalry 164 

Swimming,  Austrian  cavalry 319 


T. 

Tactics,  &c.,  of  Austrian  cavalry 315 

of  English  cavalry 377 

of  French  cavalry 342 

of  Prussian  cavalry 297 

infantry 74 

of  Russian  cavalry 116 

infantry 211 

of  United  States  cavalry 389 

Tents,  Russian 109 

Topographical  corps,  Russian 88 

Trains,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 405 

Transportation  of  English  cavalry  by  sea 379 

of  French  cavalry  by  sea 359 


U. 

Uniform  of  French  cavalry 347 

of  Prussian  cavalry 303 

infantry 77 

of  Russian  army 105 

cavalry 107 

infantry 107 

militia 294 

of  Sardinian  infantry 83 

of  United  States  cavalry.. 392 


,  INDEX.  499 

UNITED  STATES  CAVALRY : 

proposed  organization 387 

system  of  tactics 389 

school  and  depot 390 

purchase  of  horses 392 

V. 

Vedettes,  United  States  cavalry,  in  war 434 

Veterinary  school  at  Berlin .'. 312 

schools  of  France 362 

school  at  Vienna •..  336 

surgeons,  &c.,  of  Austrian  cavalry 337 

Vienna,  schools  of  equitation,  &c.,  at 335 

Z. 
Zouaves 61 


THE    END. 


MILITARY  BOORS 


PUBLISHED    BY 


J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO. 

PHILADELPHIA. 


The  Armies  of  Europe  ;  comprising  descriptions  in  detail 
of  the  Military  Systems  of  England,  France,  Russia,  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Sardinia.  Adapting  their  advantages  to  all  arms 
of  the  United  States  Service.  Embodying  the  Report  of  Ob- 
servations in  Europe  during  the  Crimean  War,  as  Military 
Commissioner  from  the  United  States  Government  in  1855-56. 
By  Geo.  B.  McClellan,  Major-General  U.  S.  Army.  Originally 
published  under  the  direction  of  the  War  Department,  by  order 
of  Congress.  1  vol.  8vo.  Illustrated  with  a  fine  steel  Portrait 
and  several  hundred  Engravings.    $3.50. 

This  most  interesting  volume,  prepared  with  great  labor  by  General 
McClellan,  from  copious  notes  taken  during  his  tour  of  observation 
in  Europe,  under  orders  from  the  War  Department,  opens  to  the  reader 
much  of  his  own  military  history  and  culture.  Here  will  be  found  his 
matured  views  on  subjects  of  immediate  and  absorbing  interest,  and 
the  noble  and  bold  suggestions  contained  herein  he  is  now  in  position 
to  realize,  and  is,  in  fact,  every  day  applying  in  practice.  The  book  is 
a  striking  prophecy,  of  which  his  present  position  and  his  assured  fame 
are  the  bright  fulfilment. 

Eegulations  and  Instructions  for  the  Field  Service  of 
the  U.S.  Cavalry  in  Time  of  War.    By  Geo.  b.  McClel- 

LAN,  Major-General  U.  S.  Army.  To  which  is  added,  the  Basis  of 
Instruction  for  the  U.  S.  Cavalry,  from  the  authorized  Tactics, — 
including  the  formation  of  regiments  and  squadrons,  the  duties 
and  posts  of  oflBcers,  lessons  in  the  training  and  use  of  the 
horse, — illustrated  by  numerous  diagrams,  with  the  signals  and 
calls  now  in  use ;  also,  instructions  for  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers  on  outpost  and  patrol  duty.  With  a  drill  for 
the  use  of  cavalry  as  skirmishers,  mounted  and  dismounted 
1  vol.  12mo.     Fully  illustrated.     $2. 

1 


2     J.   B.    LIPPINCOTT   &  CO.'S   MILITARY   PUBLICATIONS. 

European  Cavalry,  including  details  of  the  organization  of 
the  Cavalry  Service  among  the  principal  nations  of  Europe ; 
comprising  England,  France,  Eussia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Sar- 
dinia. By  Geo.  B.  McClellan,  Major-General  U.S.  Army.  1 
vol.  12mo.     Fully  illustrated.     $1.25. 

Manual  of  Bayonet  Exercises,    Prepared  for  the  Use  of 

the  Army  of  the  United  States.  By  Geo.  B.  McClellan,  Major- 
General  U.S.  Army.  Printed  by  order  of  the  War  Department. 
1  vol.  12mo.     Fully  illustrated.     $1.25. 

Hon.  C.  M,  CoNBAD,  Secretary  of  War. 

Head- Quarters  of  the  Army,  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  31,  1851. 

Sir: — Herewith  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  a  system  of  Bayonet* 
Exercises,  translated  from  the  French  by  Captain  Geo.  B.  McClellan, 
Corps  Engineers,  U.S.  Army. 

I  strongly  recommend  its  being  printed  for  distribution  to  the  army, 
and  that  it  be  made,  by  regulation,  a  part  of  the  "System  of  Instruc- 
tion." 

The  enclosed  extracts  from  reports  of  the  Inspector-General,  &c., 
show  the  value. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  with  high  respect,  your  most  obedient 

WINFIELD  SCOTT, 
R.  Jones,  Adjutant- General. 
Approved.     C.  M.  Conrad,  Secretary  of  War.     Jan.  2,  1852. 

Eevised  Eegulations  for  the  Army  of  the  United  States. 

1861.  By  authority  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  and 
the  Secretary  of  War.    With  a  full  Index.    1  vol.  8vo.    559  pp. 

$2.00.      JtST  PUBLISHED. 

War  Department,  Washington,  August  10,  1861. 

Whereas,  it  has  been  found  expedient  to  revise  the  Regulations  for 
the  Army,  and  the  same  having  been  approved  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  he  commands  that  they  be  published  for  the  information 
and  government  of  the  military  service,  and  that,  from  and  after  the 
date  hereof,  they  shall  be  strictly  observed  as  the  sole  and  standing 
authority  upon  the  matter  therein  contained. 

Nothing  contrary  to  the  tenor  of  these  Regulations  wnl  be  enjoined 
in  any  part  of  the  forces  of  the  United  States  by  any  commander 
whatsoever.  SIMON  CAMERON, 

Secretary  of  War. 

Important  changes  and  additions  have  been  made  to  this  revised 
edition  of  the  Army  Regulations,  and  it  should  at  once  be  in  the  hands 
of  all  who  have  the  jrevious  editions. 


J.   B.    LIPPIXCOTT   &    CO.'S    MILITARY   PUBLICATIONS.      3 

United  States  Infantry  Tactics.  For  the  instruction,  Ex- 
ercise, and  Manoeuvres  of  the  U.S.  Infantry,  including  Infantry 
of  the  Line,  Light  Infantry,  and  Riflemen.  Prepared  under 
the  direction  of  the  War  Department,  and  authorized  and 
adopted  by  Simon  Cameron,  Secretary  of  War.  Containing  the 
School  of  the  Soldier,  the  School  of  the  Company,  Instructions 
for  Skirmishers,  the  General  Calls,  the  Calls  for  Skirmishers, 
the  School  of  the  Battalion,  the  Articles  of  War,  and  a  Dic- 
tionary of  Military  Terms.  1  vol.  complete,  illustrated  with 
numerous  Engravings.     §1.25. 

War  Department,  Washington,  May  1,  1861. 
This  System  of  United  States  Infantry  Tactics  for  Light  Infantry  and 
Riflemen,  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  War  Department,  having 
been  approved  by  the  President,  is  adopted  for  the  instruction  of  the 
troops  when  acting  as  Light  Infantry  or  Riflemen,  and,  under  the  act 
of  May  12,  1820,  for  the  observance  of  the  militia  when  so  employed. 
SIMON  CAMERON,  Secretary  of  War. 
The  above  system  of  Infantry  Tactics,  based  upon  the  latest  im- 
provements in  French  military  experience,  and  adapted  to  the  peculiar 
wants  of  our  service,  has  been  prepared  by  order  of  the  United  States 
Government,   and  is  now,  after  the  most   satisfactory  evidence  of  its 
eflBciency,  authorized  and  adopted  by  the  Secretary  of  War  for  the  In- 
struction of  the  troops. 

Infantry  is  divided  into  Heavy  Infantry, — also  called  Infantry  of  the 
Line,  and  Light  Infantry,  The  difference  between  Heavy  and  Light 
Infantry  is  twofold:  1st.  In  their  weapons  and  equipment;  the  former 
being  armed  with  the  musket,  and  the  latter  with  the  rifle  when  it  may 
be  had.  2d.  In  the  order  of  battle  ;  Heavy  Infantry  being  in  compact 
order,  while  Light  Infantry  is  dispersed  or  deployed  as  skirmishers, 
the  men  being  separated  and  more  independent  in  delivering  their  fire 
as  sharp-shooters. 

In  the  School  of  the  Company  and  of  the  Battalion,  the  instruction  for 
Heavy  and  Light  Infantry  is  the  same,  every  regiment  of  Infantry  having 
one  company  of  Light  Infantry  as  a  part  of  its  organization,  and  all 
these  companies  being  drilled  as  Infantry  of  the  Line. 

The  system  now  presented  gives  a  complete  course  of  instruction  for 
both  kinds  of  Infantry,  in  the  Schools  of  the  Company  and  Battalion, 
and  has,  besides,  a  special  drill  for  Light  Infantry  when  employed  as 
skirmishers. 

The  advantages  claimed  by  this  system  of  tactics  over  former  ones 
are  numerous  and  decided  ;  greater  celerity  in  movements,  forming  in 
line  from  column  without  halting,  changing  direction  from  front  to  rear 
while  marching,  doubling  the  files  when  marching  by  a  flank,  the  omis- 
sion of  unnecessary  commands,  or  parts  of  commands,  more  varied 
formation  of  squares  against  cavalry,  and  many  others. 

It  is  believed  that,  with  the  same  materiel,  this  system  will  render  a 
company  or  regiment  much  more  efi"ective  than  any  other. 

With  a  view  to  insure  uniformity  in  a  system  of  instruction  the  merits 
of  which  are  acknowledged  by  the  highest  authority,  it  is  now  presented 
to  the  volunteers  and  militia  called  into  service,  as  the  authorized  drill 
for  the  U.  S.  Infantry,  and  that  by  which  they  will  be  instructed  and 
disciplined. 
Washington,  D.C,  May  1,  1861. 


4      J.   B.    LIPPINCOTT   &   CO.'S    MILITARY   PUBLICATIONS. 

The  Ordnance  Manual,  for  the  use  of  the  Officers  of  the 
Army  and  others.  Prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  War 
Department.  Third  edition.  1  vol.  demi-8vo.  Fully  illus- 
trated.    $2.50. 

CONTENTS.— Chap.  I.  Ordnance.  II.  Shot  and  Shell.  III.  Artil- 
lery Carriages.  IV.  Machines,  etc.,  for  Siege  and  Garrison  Service. 
V.  Artillery  Implements  and  Equipments.  VI.  Artillery  Harness  and 
Cavalry  Equipments.  VII.  Paints,  Lackers,  etc.  VIII.  Small  Arms, 
Swords,  and  Accoutrements.  IX.  Gunpowder,  Lightning-Rods.  X. 
Ammunition  of  all  kinds.  Fireworks.  XI.  Equipment  of  Batteries  for 
Field,  Siege,  and  Garrison  Service,  XII.  Mechanical  Manoeuvres. 
XIII.  Artillery  Practice,  Ranges,  Penetration,  etc.  XIV.  Materials, 
Strength  of  Materials.  XV.  Miscellaneous  Information,  Tables  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  Physical  Data,  Mathematical  Formulae,  Ballis- 
tics, Tables,  etc. 

This  most  valuable  work  to  persons  engaged  in  the  military  service 
and  in  the  preparation  of  any  of  the  various  military  supplies,  (the 
construction  of  which  is  given  in  minute  detail,)  will  also  prove  useful 
to  mechanics  generally  for  the  valuable  tables  and  miscellaneous  in- 
formation which  it  contains. 


Hardee's  Eifle  and  Light  Infantry  Tactics,  for  the  Exer- 
cise and  Manoeuvres  of  Troops  v^'hen  acting  as  Light  Infantry 
or  Eiflemen.  Prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  "War  De- 
partment. By  Brevet  Lieutenant-Colonel  W.  J.  Hardee,  U.S.A. 
2  vols,  complete.  Vol.  I.  Schools  of  the  Soldier  and  Company; 
Instruction  for  Skirmishers.  Vol.  II.  School  of  the  Battalion. 
$1.50. 

Henderson  on  the  Examination  of  Eecruits.    Hints  on 

the  Medical  Examination  of  Recruits  for  the  Army,  and  on  the 
discharge  of  Soldiers  from  service  on  Surgeon's  Certificate. 
Adapted  to  the  service  of  the  United  States.  By  Thomas  HexV- 
DERSON,  M.D.,  Asst.  Surgeon  U.S.  Army.  A  new  edition,  revised 
by  EiCHARD  H.  CooLiDGE,  M.D.,  Asst.  Surgeon  U.S.  Army.  1 
vol.  12mo.    $1.00. 

A  Manual  of  Military  Surgery;  or.  Hints  on  the  Emergen- 
cies of  Field,  Camp,  and  Hospital  Practice.  By  S.  D.  Gross, 
M.D.,  Professor  of  Surgery  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  of 
Philadelphia.     1  vol.  18mo.     50  cents. 


J.   B.   LIPPIXCOTT   &    CO.'S    MILITARY   PUBLICATIONS.      5 

Cavalry  Tactics •  Published  by  order  of  the  War  Department. 
First  Part. — School  of  the  Trooper,  of  the  Platoon  and  of 
the  Squadron  Dismounted.  Second  Part. — Of  the  Platoon  and 
of  the  Squadron  Mounted.  Third  Part. — Evolutions  of  a 
Regiment.     3  vols.  18mo.     $3.75. 

War  Department,  Washington,  Feb.  10,  1841. 
The  system  of  Cavalry  Tactics  adapted  to  the  organization  of  Dra- 
goon regiments,  having  been  approved  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  is  now  published  for  the  government  of  the  said  service. 

Accordingly,  instruction  in  the  same  will  be  given  after  the  method 
pointed  out  therein ;  and  all  additions  to,  or  departures  from,  the  ex- 
ercises and  manoeuvres  laid  down  in  this  system  are  positively  for- 
bidden. J.  K.  POINSETT,  Secretary  of  War. 

Instmction  in  Field  Artillery.  Prepared  by  a  Board  of 
Artillery  Officers.     1  vol.  demi-Svo.     $2*.50. 

Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  15,  1859. 
Col.  S.  Cooper,  Adjt.  Gen.  U.S.A. 

Sir  : — The  Light  Artillery  Board  assembled  by  Special  Orders  No. 
134,  of  1856,  and  Special  Orders  No.  116,  of  1858,  has  the  honor  to 
submit  a  revised  system  of  Light  Artillery  Tactics  and  Regulations 
recommended  for  that  arm. 

WM.  H.  FRENCH,  Bt.  Major,  Captain  First  Artillery. 
WILLIAM  F.  BARRY,  Captain  Second  Artillery. 
HENRY  J.  HUNT,  Bt.  Major,  Captain  Second  Artillery. 

War  Department,  March  6,  1860. 
The  system  of  instruction  for  Field  Artillery,  prepared  by  a  Board 
of  Light  Artillery  Officers,  pursuant  to  orders  from  this  Department, 
having  been  approved  by  the  President,  is  herewith  published  for  the 
information  and  government  of  the  army. 

All  exercises,  manoeuvres,  and  forms  of  parade  not  embraced  in  this 
system  are  prohibited  in  the  Light  Artillery,  and  those  herein  pre- 
scribed will  be  strictly  observed. 

By  order  of  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  Handy-Book  for  the  United  States  Soldier,  on  coming 

INTO  Service.  Containing  a  Complete  System  of  Instruction 
in  the  School  of  the  Soldier ;  embracing  the  Manual  for  the 
Rifle  and  Musket,  with  a  preliminary  explanation  of  the  Form- 
ation of  a  Battalion  on  Parade,  the  Position  of  the  Officers, 
&c.  &c.  Also,  Instructions  for  Street-Firing.  Being  a  First 
Book  or  Introduction  to  the  authorized  United  States  Infantry 
Tactics.     Complete  in  1  vol.  128  pages,  illustrated.     25  cents. 

To  the  recruit  just  mustered  into  service,  the  system  of  tactics  seems 
extensive  and  difficult. 

The  design  of  this  little  Handy-Book  is  to  divide  the  instruction,  and, 
by  presenting  a  complete  system  for  the  drill  of  the  individual  soldier, 
to  prepare  him  for  the  use  and  study  of  the  authorized  United  States 
Infantry  Tactics,  in  the  school  of  the  company  and  the  battalion. 


6      J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   &   CO.'S    MILITARY  PUBLICATIONS. 

MILITARY  BOOKS  1  COURSE  OF  PREPARATION. 

New  UiS.  Cavalry  Tactics.  By  Colonel  Philip  St.  G.  Cooke, 
U.S.  Army.  Approved  by  a  Board  of  Cavalry  Officers.  [Im- 
mediately.) 

Jomini^S  Art  of  War.  [PrSds  de  ran  de  U  guerre.]  Summary 
of  the  Art  of  War;  or,  A  new  Analytical  Compend  of  the  Prin- 
cipal Combinations  of  Strategy,  Grand  Tactics,  and  Military 
Policy.  By  Baron  de  Jomini,  General  in  Chief,  Aide-de-Camp 
General  to  the  Emperor  of  Eussia.  A  new  and  accurate  trans- 
lation, from  the  last  Paris  edition,  (just  published,)  by  Lieut. 
Wm.  p.  Craighill,  of  the  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  First 
Lieut,  of  Engineers,  U.S.  Army. 

A  Compreliensive  Encyclopsedia  of  Military  Science, 

Art,  and  History  J  containing  a  Complete  Explanation  of  all 
Military  Terms,  with  their  Pronunciation,  and  Descriptions  of 
the  Principal  Battles  in  the  World's  History.     Fully  illustrated. 

Marmont's  Spirit  of  Military  Institutions,  from  the  latest 

Paris  edition.  Translated,  with  notes,  by  Henry  Coppee,  Pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  late  a  Captain  in 
the  Army  of  the  United  States. 

This  book  contains,  in  a  small  compass,  the  principles  of  the  art  of 
war,  as  learned  and  practiced  by  this  great  marshal  during  the  Napo- 
leonic wars.  It  treats  of  strategy,  tactics  and  grand  tactics, — of  the 
organization  and  formation  of  armies — the  principles  of  fortification — 
of  military  justice,  wars  oflfensive  and  defensive,  marches  and  encamp- 
ments, reconnoissances,  battles, — and  various  important  topics,  in- 
cluding the  tactics  of  the  three  arms  as  applied  in  actual  movements 
before  the  enemy, — with  the  peculiar  characteristics  and  duties  of 
general  officers. 

Eegister  of  tlie  OflScers  and  Graduates  of  the  U.S.  Mi- 
litary Academy,  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  from  March  16, 

1802,  to  the  present  time.  Compiled  from  the  official  records 
of  the  War  Department,  and  other  reliable  sources,  by  Geo.  W. 
CuLLUM,  Lieut.  Col.  and  A.D.C.  to  Lieut.  Gen.  Winfield  Scott. 

The  Artillerist's  Manual  and  U.S.  Soldier's  Compen- 
dium.    By  Joseph  Roberts,  Capt.  4th  Artillery  U.S.  Army. 


WAN  OEPT 

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